Improved Edition-^ihe Old JVomendature with the JVew. 



GRAMMAR 



OP 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



OLIVER B. PEIRCE. 



Shall we embrace Trjtb, when found ? or, Shall we reject it, because not found before ? 



WATERTOWN, N. Y, 



PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY KNOWLTON & RICE. 
1843 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by 

OLIVER B. PEIRCE, 

in the Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Northern District -f 
New-York. 

Entered, also, according to Act of Parliament, in Stationers' Hall, 
London. 



1 



f 



PREFACE. 



Shall we examine New Theories, hoping for Improvement '? or, shall we 
condemn and reject, without examination, whatever lacks the stamp of 
Age ? 

Theories, now old^ were once new. True theories, now new^ will be- 
come old. 

The general dissatisfaction in relation to English Grammar, is 
ij apology for presenting to the world a new theory — a system 
•hich can not make matters worse — which may improve them. 

It is every where admitted, that no other science is studied at 
i great a sacrifice of time and labor, with so little countervailing 
Jvantage ; while all must perceive, that no science presents, to 
ie student, greater inducements to action, than this, the first of 
lences — the grand auxiliar of every other science — for, 
Whether a person would make the wisdom of other men, his 
'vn ; or would impart, for others' benefit, the knowledge he has 
«.ined ; it is by, and through^ the language, as a system of chatt- 
els, that he is, chiefly, to receive or impart what he would attain 
bestow. Thus it is seen, that the language is inseparably con- 
nected with the intelligence and welfare of individuals, with the 
pleasures of social intercourse, with the advancement of science 
and the varied interests of the world. 

Of the comparative importance of the English, and other lan- 
guages, there must be different opinions. Some men, we find, 
who were early bred to an acquaintance with the ancient langua- 
ges, to the almost utter neglect of their own, the Enghsh. This 
tiiey seem scarcely to have examined, save through the distorting 
medium of the old systems of Grammar. These persons, it must be 
expected, will adhere to their early notions and established preju- 
dices, however wrong ; like shell-fish remaining fixed to the rocks 
on which they grew. They are like Lot's wife in the midst of 
the plain — like mile-posts, not designed as companions in the 
way ; but intended only as evidence of others' advancement, as 
means to mark the progress of the Votaries of Truth, as they as- 
cend the Hill of Science. 



IV PREFACE. 

For these antiquated stationarles, blink-eyed from the effects of 
the glare of science outshining the lurid twilight of the morn 
which gave them birth — for these literary abstractionists who fond- 
ly turn, for light, towards the Dark Ages, and who can see nothing 
of excellence in plans, measures, or systems which have not the 
marks of antiquity — for these, I do not write. *' They are joined 
to their idols — Let them alone." 

I write for the guidance of those who are able to see, and hav- 
ing seen, to appreciate ; for the benefit of both teacher and pu- 
pil, the middle-aged and young ; that the principles of science 
may be transmitted, unobstructed, through successive stages of 
improvement to generations yet unborn. 

I duly appreciate the classic languages, as such, but I regard 
the English as a broader, higher field of science. Egypt and Is- 
rael, Greece and Rome, have had, in turn, their glory, and the 
grave. Their Literature arose, and shone, and fell in the very 
wreck of empires which gave it brightness. The soul that ani- 
mated it has gone ; and the stream of time which swept over 
it, has borne to us, not " the thing of life," but the relics of what 
was. Yet, of the dimensions of the living, we may judge, from 
the anatomy of the dead. 

If a language is to be valued either according to the extent of 
its use, or the amount and importance of light effulging from it ; 
or from both combined, there is not, (there never has been,) a lan- 
guage that can compare with the English, which, whatever may- 
have been its resources, and however it may have been regarded, 
is, already f the sun in the firmament of literature ; and is destined 
by the physical, intellectual, and moral energy of the Anglo-Sax- 
on race, to become, in the varied commerce of life — in civilization 
and refinement, in mind and morals, by Science prompting Art, 
THE Regenerator of the world. 

If the foregoing remark is true» (and who can doubt its truth ?) 
it sufficiently vindicates the importance of the English, as com- 
pared with the other languages of the globe. 

We have but one English Language^ and consequently can need 
but one grammar of the language. That one, designed for the 
instruction of millions yet unacquainted with other languages, 
should be, essentially, and in fact, an English Grammar — English 
in its Classification — English in its Nomenclature— -English 
in its Definitions — and last, and most of allj English in its 



PREFACE. y 

Rules, both analytical and synthetical, which should describe, ful- 
ly, the idiom and structure of the language.* 

An English Geography of England^ should be fully and truly 
English ; describing, by English words, the English country, just 
as the country is — however much or little those words or that 
country may agree or disagree with the language or country of the 
French, the Germans, the Greeks or Chinese. 

English Grammar, (unlike Medicine, Anatomy, or Physiolo- 
gy,) is a particular^ not a general science — being but the geog- 
raphy and directory of the English Language. It should there- 
fore be such as to lend its sanction to every correct sentence, just 
as the sentence stands ; and such as to condemn and correct, with 
reasons, whatever is wrong in the use of words for the express- 
ion of ideas. From these premises, fixed in the nature of things^ 
it follows, inevitablyy and is self-evident, that, 

0t^A sentence, to be parsed, must be described as it is — that, 

3i$?>If a sentence is right, and the rules of grammar are right, 
they must agree as they are — that, 

^(^If a sentence is right, and we have to change it, in the least, 
to make it agree with the rules of grammar, this shows, on the 
face of the fact, that the rules are defective or wrong ; and that 
the grammar, (so called,) is not a grammar of the language — that, 

{ji^If a sentence is to be deemed correct, as it is, because, 
when put into some other form, it can, in the new form, be pars- 
ed ; then it follows, as a matter of course, that all sentences, 
(however incorrect,) are perfect, as they stand — for any sentence 
can be transformed by putting in words " understood ^\' or by 
taking out words expressed, (either or both,) and by this trans- 
formation, can be adapted to the rules of grammar. 

^C^What would be thought of a topographer, who, averse to 
labor, should sit in his study, and copy from maps of countries and 
cities in Asia and Africa, and in presenting his new map, thus 
made, should pretend to represent London or New York, as it is, 
by describing lakes, where there are parks ; forests, where are 
stately temples ; and sandy deserts, where are blooming gardens ; 

*Perhaps it is well to retain for a time, in Grammar, as in Chemistry, the 
old nomenclature with the new^ as a kind of connecting ]ink between two 
eras in science; till one generation shall have passed, and till, of course, the 
teacher and the pupil can meet on the common ground of one nomencla- 
ture, and that ^ philosphical one. 
1* 



VI PREFACE. 

and, when told of the discrepancy should begin to talk of his iafcsSf 
and forests, and deserts " understood /" which the teacher and 
pupil must put in — (" supplying the ellipses !") to make the city 
agree with the map, which professes, but fails, to represent the 
city! 

{ji^=»Topography, or geography, based on such an absurdity, 
would be but a burlesque on science — an insult to the understand- 
ing. 

(Jr^Grammar, based on such an absurdity, would be but an out- 
rage on common sense — not even the miniic of Philosophy — but 
the mockery of Science — a very libel on the name it bears — yet, 
on this self-same absurdity have all of the old theories of giam- 
mar been formed — and on this same absurdity, English Grammar, 
written, learned, and taught, has been sustained, like the old sys- 
tem of Astronomy, by the concurrence of the great, (?) and the 
credence of mankind, during the lapse of ages. 

^t^The old theorists scarcely pretend to describe the English 
language, as correctly spoken and written. No ! they warp facts 
to suit their theories, instead of studying the facts and writing def- 
initions and rules to represent them — [like stretching an infant out 
of joint to make him fit his father's clothes !] They distort and 
deform the language and grossly misrepresent its principles and 
structure, to make the language, thus distorted, conform to their 
false, dead systems, instead of learning the language and writing 
grammars to describe it. To prove this, let well known facts be 
presented to the erudition, the judgment and candor of mankind.* 

gl^In the following *' contrast," the left hand column contains 
what is regarded as good English, and what is correct according 
to the new system herewith presented to the pubHc. The light 
hand column contains the same sentences (corresponding in num- 
ber,) as they are re-modelled to make them " grammatical ac- 
cording to the old theories. I give but a few instances of the 
thousands that might be given. 

*By " the old theorists,''^ as referred to, I mean Johnson, Lowth, Lennie, 
Murray, Kirkham, G. Brown, Smith, Bullions, Alger, Hazen, Joseph W'. 
Wright, Parker and Fox, and all others of the same general character ; 
their works differing not much in principles, but chiefly in dates, title-pages 
and binding. 

The earlier of these writers, transcribed their theories from Latin and 
Greek grammars ; like making a geography of modern England bv copying 
geographies of ancient Greece and Rome : and the later writers have only 
echoed from time to time, and from place to place, the absurdities of their 
predecessors — or, the figure being changed, Murray's Grammar is the place 
in which the principles of the earlier writers centered, and from which, un- 
changed, but in new dresses, they have all diverged. 



PREFAClS. 



Til 



CONTRAST OF CORRECT, WITH INCORRECT 
LANGUAGE. 



Good English Sentences, 

Grammatical according to Peirce^s 

Grammar. 

1 John; go home. 

2 They took Moses' rod. I read of 
Xerxes' overthrow. I heard of the 
witness' return. I approved Dr. 
Evans' advice. 

3 James called and took his ticket, 
but left Henry's, Jacob's, Seth's, 
William's, Julia's and Mary's. 



4 John lent me his book, and bor- 
rowed mine. 

5 Jane took, by accident, Julia's 
umbrella, and left hers. 

6 George and Henry took William's 
carriage for their journey, and left 
theirs; because his was better than 
theirs. 

7 James and Richard brought home 
from the East, ten Canary birds. 
They gave two of them to Mary, 
two of them to Helen, and two of 
them to me, and kept the remain- 
ing four as theirsjor for themselves. 



8 Julia and Hannah respect and es- 
teem each other. They Use one 
another's books. 



( 



■» 9 Seth Allen can not go to New- 
York, finish my business, and re- 
turn in ten days ; but James Ellis 
can. 



10 Helen is taller than Maria, 
ria is as studious as Helen. 



Ma- 



OUTLANDISH JarGON, 

Grammatical according to the old 
theories. 

1 John, go thou to home, or John, 
do thou go unto home. 

2 They took Moses's rod. I read 
of Xerxes's overthrow. 1 heard 
of the witness's return. I approv- 
ed Dr. Evans's advice. 

3 James called and took his ticket, 
but left Henry 's ticket, and Jacob's 
ticket, and Seth's ticket, and Wil- 
Uam's ticket, and Julia's ticket t 
and Mary's ticket, 

4 John lent to or unto me his book, 
and borrowed mine book. 

5 Jane took, by accident, Julia's um- 
brella, and left hers umbrella. 

6 George and Henry took William's 
carriage for their journey, and left 
theirs carriage ; because his car- 
riage was better than theirs car- 
riage was. 

7 James andRichard brought to home 
or unto home, from the East, ten 
Canary bi rds . They gave two Ca- 
nary birds of them to Mary, and 
two Canary birds of them to Hel- 
en, and two Canary birds of them 
to me, and kept the remaining four 
Canary birds as theirs Canary 
birds, or for themselves. 

8 Julia and Hannah respect and es- 
teem somebody — each peison of 
them respects and esteems the oth- 
er person. They use books — one 
person of them uses another per- 
son's books — meaning the other 
person's books. 

9 Seth Allen cannot go to New York, 
finish my business and return in 
ten days ; but James Ellis can ^o 
to JVew York, and can finish 
my business, and can return in 
ten days. 

10 Helen is taller than Maria — is 
: tall. Maria is as studious as Hel- 
en — is studious. 



PREFACE. 



11 William bought more paper than 
was needed ; and purchased as 
much fruit as can be used. 



12 George has more books than he 
can read. 

13 Harriet is ten years older than 
Jane. 

14 The wall is ten feet high. 



15 The canal is more than fifty miles 
long. 

16 Seth journeyed west five days, 
and travelled more than four hun- 
dred miles. 



17 The enemy returned to the charge 
four times. 

18 George sold his apples for a pen- 
ny each. 

19 I have a farm with which I know 
not what to do. 

20 I have more money by half than 
I know what to do with. 



21 James resides more than ten miles 
beyond New York. 

22 The eagle soared more than ten 
thousand feet above the level of the 



11 William bought more paper than 
that or the paper was which was 
needed; and purchased as much 
fruit as that or the fruit is which 
can be used. 

12 George has more books than he 
can read them — or than those or 
the books are which he can read . 

13 Harriet is older than Jane is oldy 
to more years than to ten years— 
or than ten years are. 

14 The wall is high to ten feet, [that 
is— the wall being " high to ten 
feet,'* or to the tenth foot, is just 
nine feet high.] 

15 The canal is long to the distance 
or extent of more miles than the 
distance or extent of ^(ty miles-z*. 

16 Seth journeyed to or towards 
west during five days, and travel- 
led over or through the distance 
or space of more miles^ than the 
distance or space of four hundred 
miles — is. 

17 The enemy returned to the charge 
to the number of four times. 

18 George sold his apples for a pen- 
ny for one apple^ or for each ap- 
ple. 

19 I have a farm with which I know 
not the thing with which to do 
something or any thing. 

20 I have more money by a half, or 
by one half than that or the thing 
is I know — something to do — 
something with which. 

21 James resides at a greater dis- 
tance than the distance of ten 
miles beyond New York — is. 

22 The eagle soared to a greater dis- 
tance or height than the distance 
or height of ten thousand feet a- 
bove the level of the sea — is. 

OC|=The next two examples are transformed exactly according to the rules 
of Kirkham's Grammar, and his particular directions to the pupil concern- 
ing these very examples, to bring them into '« grammatical" forms. 



23 Who noble ends, by noble means, 
obtains, 
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in 
chains. 



23 That man is great indeed do thou 
or ye let him to reign like unto 
good Aurelius, or do thou or ye 
let him to bleed like unto Socra- 



PREFACE. 



Like good Aureliuslet him reign, 

or bleed 
Like Socrates ; the man is great 

indeed. 



24 Oh Happiness! our being's end 

and aim ? 
Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content, 

whatever thy name — 
The something, still, which 

prompts th' eternal sigh. 
For which we bear to Uve, or dare 

to die ! 



tes, who obtains noble ends by no- 
ble means — or that man is great 
indeed^ who, failing to obtain nO' 
ble ends by noble means, smiles 
in exile or in chains. 



24 Oh Happiness! our being's end 
and aim, whether thou art good, 
or whether thou art pleasure, or 
whether thou art ease, or whether 
thou art content, thou art that, 
thou art which — or be thy name 
that thing, it may be whichever 
thing, thou art still that some- 
thing, &c. &c. ! ! 

The foregoing " contrast" of correct language, with language, 
" gramrnaticaP^ according to the old systems, must convince any 
one but a bigot, that " Grammar," with the old theorists is a mere 
arbitrary, ideal thing — an ijnaginary something, to which the lan- 
guage, by being utterly spoiled, is to be made to conform — like 
the operations of a fanatical glover who makes all his gloves to 
an ideal standard or measure, and when a lady calls to purchase, 
agrees to ensure a perfect fit (whatever the length of her fin- 
gers) by cutting off the ends of her fingers, if ihe fingers are too 
long to fit the gloves ; or by stretching her fingers out of joint, 
(if they are too short,) and putting in, between the joints, wooden, 
blocks, (something " iinderstood ") to make the hand fit the 
glove ! and, by so doing, renders utterly useless a before perfect 
hand ! — all this rather than examine the hand and make the glove 
so as to fit the hand. 

It is thus that the principles of science, fixed and enduring, of 
themselves, and as clear as meridian light, must be distorted, dis- 
placed, hidden, and lost to the world, by our adherence to the 
crude, disjointed maxims of misguided " grammar" writers — and 
men, in other respects really wise, lend the full sanction of their 
influence to perpetuate the evils of these systems of grammar, 
chiefly because the systems were written by some friend, or fa- 
ther's friend ; and because, really, they know too little of the 
works to have discovered one tenth of the thousand errors which 
they inculcate. From friendly regard for the man, these " high 
priests" in science abuse the influence of their stations by com- 
mending the trash of the author — and thus make actually true, 
what should have existed only in the imagination of the poet of 
fiction — that 

" Wisdom nurses Folly's childrejn, as her own, 
•* Fond op the foulest!** 



X PREFACE. 

Law, in a free country, is, professedly, the representation of the 
people's intelligence and will ; and is designed to correct, by estab- 
lished rule, the occasional aberrations of individuals. Grammar 
consists of the representation of the principles of communication 
as adopted by the learned of a community or country, yet digest- 
ed according to reason, and applied by rule ; that, by restraining 
the irregularities of genius, by directing the style of the well-in- 
formed, and by refining, to expulsion, the awkwardness of the vul- 
gar, it may produce, as nearly as possible, uniformity in the mean- 
ing of words, and perspicuity in the expression of ideas, or the 
transmission of thought. 

I have come, as an author, before the public, hoping to correct 
the errors, to remove the absurdities, and supply the defects in 
this department of science. I offer this, my mite, as a contribu- 
tion to the public fund ; asking, only, that those for whose benefit 
it is intended, will examine, discriminate, judge and act. 

I have classed the words of the language according to their re- 
al traits of similarity, and have distinguished the classes according 
to their real differences. 

Regardless of the course of other writers, I have used, as 
TERMS OF DISTINCTION, such words as the principles to be dis- 
tinguished, have, of themselves, suggested to me — words which 
must, in turn, suggest the characters of the different principles to 
the learner. 

Of the different parts of speech, and their respective subdivis- 
ions, I have given such definitions as really define and include the 
principles intended, and such as exclude every other principle. 

I have so adapted my rules to the idiom and proper structure of 
the language, that I parse philosophically y and sanction, as it 
standSf every correct sentence in the language ; and condemn and 
correct, with reasons, whatever is wrong m the use of words for 
the expressing of ideas. I believe I have made English Gram- 
mar a plain, practical and pleasant science. If I have failed may 
my work sink innoxious to the depths of oblivion, rather than re- 
main, like too many others, to burden, not to sustain, the rising 
greatness of the intellectual and moral constitution of man. 

If I have succeeded in accomplishing the end proposed, in ma- 
king the crooked paths of Science straight ^ and her rough places 
smooth; if I shall enable the student to become equally learned 
and useful, with less expense ; or more learned and useful, with 



PREFACE. Xi 

equal expense ; if I shall, in effect, add something to man's brief 
existence, by shortening the time necessarily spent in preparing 
him to act his part in life with credit to himself, in usefulness to 
the world ; then, although amid the coming revolutions of succes- 
sive improvement, the name of the author and his work may per- 
ish from the memory of man ; yet, from consciousness that my ef- 
forts for the advancement of the general good have not been whol- 
ly vain, I shall have had, while living, the satisfaction of seeing 
my highest designs consummated. 

OLIVER B. PEIRCE. 
Rome, N. Y. 1843. 






MAXIM. 



Science, in every department, Physical, Intellectual, Moral and Reli- 
gious, should be so taught, that, when imparted, the principles, by recom- 
mending themselves to the understanding, can remain living and fixed, 
without the support of authors* or teachers' names. 



ADDRESS TO THE TEACHER. 



Consider the persons under j^our charge, as rational creatures, 
endowed, by their Creator, with intellectual faculties which are ca- 
pable of being raised, by proper exercise, to indefinite expansion 
and power; but which, if forced to admit, as truth, the unexam- 
ined dogmas of schools, will dwindle to the insignificance of mere 
brutal instinct — the imitative propensity of the parrot or the ape* 

Remember that a child is a man in miniature — that the fact of 
your associating with your pupils, must, in degree, stamp upon 
them, in mind and moials, in deportment, in every thing that can 
constitute the character of man, the impress of yourself. 

Remember that active beliefs founded in conviction, from per- 
sonal investigation, alone can benefit and improve mankind — that 
the principles of any theory, on any subject, blindly assented to, 
can not be lasting in their effect ; but, like the mist of morning, 
may be noticed at the time, yet pass and are forgotten — therefore, 

{J(^Never allow your pupils to commit to memory 
what they do not understand. 

(|(^NeVER teach, as truth, any thing, however TRI- 
FLING IT MAY seem, which ReASOn's UTMOST FORCE AND 
BRILLIANCE CAN EVER AFTERWARDS UNTEACH. 

What you can not strengthen and improve, do not weaken and 
deform. 

Teach them that Grammar is but a guide to the understanding 
in the use of correct language — that Parsing is only describing 
facts, or the nature and relations of words as they are used, not 
as they, or some others might have been used — guard them against 
blindly adopting the sentiments of any man however great in the 
estimation of the world — teach them that authors are but public 
men sharing the common infirmities of the race — that, though long 
2 



XlV TO THE TEACHER. 

approved, theoiies which are not philosophical and practical, are 

down-right insult to the human mind, and should ' 

carded. 



uld be at once dis- 1 
rious capacities, shall f 



Explain the parts which, to the learners' various capacities 
need to be explained ; and impress on their minds, that their pro- 
ficiency and enjoyment in each succeeding part, will depend on 
their having acquired a thorough knowledge of all that precedes it. 

Lead them, step by step, from examining the different materi- 
als of which the fabric of the language is composed, to learn the 
proper mode of selecting, arranging and combining the parts, to 
form a just-propoitioned and harmonious structure of the whole. 

gt^Impress them with the truth, ^h-aX fifteen minutes per day , 
spent in exercising the understanding, is worth more than the 
whole time wasted in the exercise of memory, without the aid of 
the understanding and judgment. 



( 



All desire improvement ; yet many are averse to change. We forget, that 
though there may be change without improvement, there can not be im- 
provement without change. We should consider that change is necessa- 
rily co-extensive with improvement. 



LANGUAGE 

1 Is the means of communicating thoughts, or expressing ideas. 
It is of two kinds ; Spoken and Written. 

SPOKEN LANGUAGE 

2 Consists of certain sounds expressing emotion, and of other 
sounds rendered significant by usage ; as, 

Oh I Alas! Fie! — Man, woman, book, hat. [Give the sounds, only.] 
WRITTEN LANGUAGE 

3 Consists of letters or figures used as signs of significant 
sounds ; as, 

0-h, for Oh ! — d-l-a-s, for Alas ! — F-i-e, for Fie ! — M-a-n, for Man — 
w-o-m-a-n, for woman — b-oo-k, for book — h-a-t^ for hat, (Give the let- 
ters first, and then the sounds of the words.] 

4 The different incorporations of words used by the people of 
different nations, are called languages ; and generally bear, respec- 
tively, the names of the countries in which they were first em- 
bodied, or to which they are peculiar ; as, the English, the French, 
the Greek, the Hebrew language. 

5 By speaking the word peiiy as a combination of sounds, the 
idea of the instrument is communicated from the speaker of the 
word to the hearer of it, if the latter has before heard the word 
used in reference to a pen. This is spoken language. 

6 By writing, as a word, the letters, jo-e-n, the idea of the in- 
strument is conveyed from the writer of the word to the reader 
of it ; if the latter has before seen the combination of letters us- 
ed to represent the instrument. This is written language. 

7 Spoken language affects the mind through the medium of 
the ear, and written language through the medium of the eye.* 

*In merely intellectual matters, impressions of ideas made through the 
latter, are generally stronger and more lasting than those made onlj' through 
the former. The cause of this difference is found in the fact that by ad- 



16 GRAMMAR. [T/ic Seven 

GRAMMAR 

8 Is the science of language. It treats of spoken and written 
words as signs of ideas. 

Grammar is of two kinds ; General and Particular, 

GENERAL GRAMMAR 

9 Consists of an exposition of the general principles of com- 
munication which are common to all languages. Thus, 

10 All languages have names by which to designate objects ; 
words, to represent the actions of objects ; words to denote the 
qualities of objects, and words to qualify events or facts, &c. &c. 

PARTICULAR GRAMMAR 

11 Consists of an explanation of those general principles as ad- 
apted to the expression of ideas, and so applied as to constitute a 
particular language. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

12 Consists of explanations of the different parts of the Eng- 
lish Language, and of directions for speaking and writing the 
language correctly. 

13 (|(^It embraces seven general principles in relation to 
which, and which only, we can err in the use of words. These 
principles can not be too carefully regarded. 

Tlie First Principle 

14 Consists in the choice or selection of right words for ex- 
pressing ideas. 

15 RULE — Regard the established meaning and proper 
application of words, and choose such words, to express your 
ideas, as will express those, and can express no others — such 
words as are consistent with good taste.* 

*See Taste treated of at the beginning of Part 1 of Rhetoric, the 5th 
part of Grammar. 

dressing the eye as well as the ear, we give to ideas a kind of individual 
forms or shapes, and relative locations with respect to each other ; and con- 
sequently, a greater array of the mental faculties is brought into exercise, 
in grasping and retaining the ideas. It is on this account, that teachers, 
who give on black-boards and otherwise, ocular illustrations of what they 
explain orally, are more successful than others who aeglect such aid*. 



Principles.] grammar. 17 

Violation, 

I must have my tooth pulled — [meaning, probably, extracted: as a per- 
son may have all his teeth pulled, without having one of them extracted or 
taken out.] James lives in New York ; though lodging, at present, in Bos- 
ton — [meaning, probably, that James resides in New York ; though lodg- 
ing at present in Boston.] A man lives wherever he is alive: he resides 
where his permanent home is. George ; harness up the horse and put him 
into the carriage— [med-nlug prohah\y , harness the horse to the carriage. 
The rider would find himself in an awkward plight, seated beside such com- 
pany as the words imply.'] The prisoner broke jail and cleared — [meaning, 
doubtless, that the prisoner broke jail and escaped.] *<-Clearedy" as appli- 
ed to ships leaving a port, would be proper ; but not to the escape of a pris- 
oner from confinement. This turtle soup is elegant or most beautiful — 
[meaning that it is excellent or delicious.] 

The Second Principle 

16 Consists in Msmg perfect words in speaking and writing. 

17 RULE — Speak with perfect propriety aad distinctness 
every word you would spealc ; and so write, whatever you 
would write, as to represent the perfect spoken word. 

Violation, 

John ; hand me that geography — [meaning ge-ography.] George ; will 
you talce some pudden ? — \med.n[ng pudding .] Seth wouldn't go home — 
ivootunt go, &c. — [meaning ivould not go home.j Julius bought a napple 
an date it — [meaning bought an apple and ate it.] 

The TMrd Principle 

18 Consists in the selection of the right forms of the words 
to be used. 

19 RULE — Select such forms of the words as are con- 
sistent with the sense intended, and with good usage. 

Violation, 

Harriet : who did you see at the concert ? — [whom did you see ?] John 
took my hat and left his'n — [and left his.] " Hast thou an arm like God ? 
and canst thou thunder with a voice like him ?" — [hast thou an arm like 
God's ? and canst thou thunder with a voice like his ?] 

The Fourth Principle 

20 Consists in the use of the proper number of words. 

21 RULE — Avoid using unnecessary words — those 
which add neither to the sense nor the beauty of the ex- 
pression, and those words w4iich would express more than 
is intended. 

2* 



IS GRAMMAR. \l'he Sevctt 

Violatio7i. 

I borrowed ten dollars of Henry, yesterday tnorning ; but I have refund- 
ed the money hack to him again this afternoon. [Omit " back to him a- 
gain," which adds neither sense nor beauty to the expression.] I went, 
from my dv\elling house in New York, to Philadelphia, and returned back 
Aome agai/z the same day. [Omit ^^ back home agai?i."'\ William has re- 
gained his e^/e-sight. [Omit the word ^' eye."] George walked home a- 
foot. [Omit the word " afoot."'] The child slipped uj) and fell down. — 
[Omit " WJ9" and "down."] 

Harriet ; come, go to the basin and wash out your eyes; and comb your 
hair out^ and prepare for school. [Omit " come," as entirely useless, and 
the two words " out," " out," as expressing too much.] John ; wash off 
your hands and commence your writing. [Omit " q^," as expressing more 
than is intended.] Julia ; clear out the breakfast room, and resume your 
studies. [Omit ''out."] 

Tiie Fiftti Principle 

22 Consists in the proper arrangement of words with respect to 
each other. 

23 RULE — So arrange your words and sentences with 
respect to each other, thatj while the intended meaning shall 
be obvious, at once, no other meaning can be attached to 
the expression. 

Violation. 

"The * Agricultural car' was drawn by twenty pairs of oxen, filled 
with three hundred men,*' — (representing in strictness that the oxen, not 
the car^ were filled with the men /) [The editor's words need to be differ- 
ently arranged to express the ideas intended. Thus, the Agricultural car, 
drawn by twenty pairs of oxen, was filled with three hundred men .] " The 
city contains sixty thousand inhabitants, built entirely of stone" — (repre- 
senting not the city, but the inhabitants, to be built of stone. ) By a different 
arrangement the ideas intended are properly expressed . Thus, the city, built 
entirely of stone, contains sixty thousand inhabitants. "There were in all, 
two white men and three Indians killed by general T's party, who had been 
committing depredations in that settlement"— (making the party of general 
T. the depredators.) [Reverse the arrangement of some of the words, — 
thus, There were, in all, killed by general T's party, two white men and 
three Indians, who had been committing depredations in that settlement.] 

The Sixth Principle 

24 Consists in the proper pauses or rests in speaking the words 
of sentences, and, in writing, the punctuation, to represent those 
pauses or rests. 

25 RULE — Let your pauses in speaking sentences, and 
your punctuation, in writing them, be such as to represent 
the intended relation of the ideas to each other. 

Violatio?i. 

" W, J. having gone to see (sea) his wife, desires the prayers of the con- 



I Principles.] grammar. 19 

gregation for his safe return"— (as though the individual dared not visit 
his wife without some special interference for his safety or protection. — 
[Make the pauses differently, or punctuate the sentence to correspond with 
the different pauses of the speaker. Thus, " W. J, having gone to see, 
(sea,) his wife desires the prayers of the congregation for his safe return." 
Here we have, expressed, a different, a very interesting, sentiment — the 
tenderness of the wife, her solicitude for her husband's welfare, and her 
confidence in the, willingness and power of Heaven to protect him.] 

The following text may be varied, in meaning, by varying the pauses, or 
punctuation. " Verily I say to thee ; to-day shalt thou be witli me in Par- 
adise. '* This would indicate that thou shalt be with me in Paradise to-day. 
Change the pause, in speaknig, or the location of the semicolon, in writing, 
from after tlie word " thee," to after the word " to-day." Thus, Verily I 
say to thee to-day ; thou shalt be with me in Paradise. This would indi- 
cate that I would have thee remember when I told thee this — " to-day" — 
as though I had not said so before, and might not again, but having no ref- 
erence to the particular time when thou shalt be with me in Paradise. I 
tell thee to-day^ only, at some subsequent time, perhaps two thousand years 
after this, thou shalt be with me in Paradise.* 

The Seventh Principle 

26 Consists in giving due emphasis to the words in a sentence, 
in view of their relative importance, and the sense to be expres- 
sed. 

27 RULE — Let your emphasizing of different words 
be such as to correspond with the relative importance of the 
IDEAS which the words represent, and with the intended 
meaning of the whole sentence. 

Illustration, 

Do you ride to the city to-day ? [Old example.] This would indicate 
that the speaker was altogether uncertain as to the whole affair. 

Do you ride to the city to day 1 — as though the speaker expected that I 
should either go, myself, or send some one. 

Do you ride to the city to-day ? — as though the speaker knew that I was 
intending to go to the city, and he would learn how I am to go — whether in 
a carriage, or on foot. 

Do you ride to the city to-day ? — as though the speaker knew that I in- 
tended to start towards the city, but was uncertain how far I mtended to 
go. 

Do you ride to the city to-day .' — as though the speaker knew that I was 
intending to ride somewhere, and he wished to learn as to the particular 
spot or place. 

Do you ride to the city to-day? — as though the speaker knew that I was 
intending to ride to the city soon, and he wished to learn as to the particu- 
lar time. 

[Six different trains of thought, are, it is perceived, suggested, by the six 
different modes of emphasizing the words of the same sentence.] 

*Punctuation has been so blindly taught, and so little understood, it is 
safer to arrange words so that mere punctuation can not give a different 
meaning to the sentence. 



20 GRAMMAR. [Orthog- 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

28 Is divided into five parts, which comprise the whole 
subject of the science of language, viz : 

Orthography, 

Etymology and Syntax, 

Prosody and Rhetoric, 



ORTHOGRAPHY 

29 Treats of letters and syllables, and the method of combin- 
ing them to form words.* 

LETTERS 

30 Are marks or signs of significant sounds. They are the first 
principles and least component parts of written language ; as 

B-i-r-dy bird — h-a-ty hat — m-a-n, man — l-i-g-h-ty light. 
A SYLLABLE 

31 Is a sound spoken by one effort of the voice, or a letter or 
combination of letters representing the sound ; as, 

Ay the, this, gigy hap-pi-ness, sat-is-fac-tioUy good-ness. 
A WORD 

32 Is a sound, or combination of sounds standing for, or refer- 
ring to, an object or idea ; as, 

A BOOK, the APPLE, this house, some man, JoHNf. 

THE ENGLISH ALPHABET 

33 Is composed of twenty-six letters. Some of these, for 
want of others, have several sounds, and some of them are fre- 
quently united to represent single sounds. 

*As the learner is supposed to have acquitted himself well in Orthogra- 
phy, (including Orthoepy,) by studying such boolcs as contain the rudiments 
of the language, I notice, in this work, only the leading principles, or the 
parts which are connected with the rules of Etymology and Syntax. 

fin these examples, it is seen that the words in small capital letters, 
(hooky appky 8fc.) stand for, and represent, distinct objects ; while those 
in italicsy (ay they this, Sfc.) do not stand for, or represent distinct objects ; 
but are used to refer to the objects represented by the words book, appky 8fc. 



i 



raphy.l 



GRAMMAR. 



21 



34 TheJllphabeU 



Roman 


Letters. 


Italic Letters. 


Names of the Letters 


A 


a 


A 


a 


a 


B 


b 


B 


b 


be 


C 


c 


C 


c 


se 


D 


d 


D 


d 


de 


E 


e 


E 


}\ 


e 


F 


f 


F 


'^ 


G 


g 


G 


9 


ge 


H 


1 


H 


h 


aich 


I 


i 


I 


i 


i 


J 


j 


J 


J 


ja 


K 


k 


K 


k 


ka 


L 


1 


L 


I 


el 


M 


m 


M 


m 


em 


N 


n 


N 


n 


en 

















P 


P 


P 


P 


pe 


Q 


q 


Q 


q 


ku 


R 


r 


R 


r 


ar 


s 


s 


S 


s 


es 


T 


t 


T 


t 


te 


U 


u 


U 


u 


u, or ew 


V 


V 


V 


V 


ve 


w 


w 


W 


w 


double-u 


X 


X 


X 


X 


ex 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


wy 


Z 

& 


z 


Z 


z 


ze* 
and 



LETTERS 

35 Are divided into three classes ; Vowels, Consonants, and 
Mutes. 

A VOWEL 

36 Is a letter which has a simple, distinct, articulate sound, 
and which may, of itself, constitute an entire syllable, or may be 
joined to other letters, to constitute, with them, single syllables ; 
as. 

Ay e, i, 0, M, y — d-e-Yi-a], Sol-o-mon, E-gypU wn-der-stand-ing. 

*It is much to be regretted that the names of the letters have so little re- 
semblance to the sounds which they are forced to represent. 

fThis character stands for the word an^. It should be used where 5r^y- 
ity, not elegance, is intended ; as, " J. Maxwell & Sons, Merchants." 



22 GRAMMAR. [Orthog- 

A CONSONANT 

37 Is a letter that, in a word, is always used with a vowel L 
with which it is sounded ; a letter which never, of itself, consti- I 
tutes a syllable, as a part of a word ; as, 

JV/, n, h^ kf iff, Wy w, g — Mdn^ hdit, but-ton, fa.n, t^o-wian, ring. 

A MUTE 

38 Is a letter whichfis not sounded in the place where it is us- 
ed ; as, 

P, h, hy in Phthis-ic; e, in come ; u, liqwor ; i and the last e pierce.* 

A 

39 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as in late, hat, hall, father, 
what, air. 

E 

40 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as in sleep, met, her, there. 

I 

41 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as in pin, find, bird, fatigue : 

EXCEPT 

42 When i is immediately followed by a vowel in the same 
syllable, it becomes a consonant ; as in min-ion, al-ien, civil-ian. 



43 Is a vowel wherever sounded; as told, not, pool, book, 
come. I 

U 

44 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as indue, annwity, run, M\ : 

EXCEPT 

45 When u is pronounced like yu standing as an entire sylla- 
ble, or beginning a syllable, it acts the part of a consonant and 
vowel ; as in w-sury, pen-M-ry, wnion, M-niverse : and, 

EXCEPT 

46 When u is joined, like w;, to a preceding consonant to give 
a two-fold consonant sound, it acts the part of a consonant ; as in 
Swabia, persuade ; or the parts of a consonant and vowel ; as in 
8«re, sugar.J 

*The definition of a micte, as here given and applied to letters^ is unlike 
the ordinary definitions given to a mute ; but it is the only one that can be 
given consistently with the fact and with reason. 

t In the words one and once, o has the short sound of the vowel u, and, 
at the same time the force and sound of the consonant w. In the word 
women it has the sound of i ; [women being pronounced wim-men.] 

X It haa the sound of i in bzeiness. 



raphy.1 grammar. 25 

W 

47 Is a consonant when sounded before a vowel in the same 
syllable ; wmg, zi?eep. 

48 It is often joined to another consonant to represent a two- 
fold consonant sound ; as sw'mg, sweep, twmge, twi^i. 

49 It is used after a vowel to give, with that, a two-fold vow- 
el sound ; as cxow^.* 

50 It is used after c, in the same syllable, to give the vowel 
sound of u; as in feit?, ntw. 

51 It is a mute after the long, open sound of o in the same syl- 
lable ; as in shoiy-ed, besto?i;-ed, moiy-ed. 

Y 

52 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as in E-g^pt, ph?/-sician, 
mys-tic ; except, 

53 When y begins a syllable and is followed by a vowel m the 
same syllable, it is a consonant ; as ^outh, 3/early, 2/am,i/elp, Far- 
mouth. 

SPELLING 

54 Is combining letters, or their sounds, to form syllables and 
words ; as, ap-ple, apple — b-i-r-d, bird. 

WORDS, 

55 With respect to their formation, are of three kinds ; Primi- 
tive or Simple, Derivative, and Compound. 

A PRIMITIVE WORD 

56 Is one which can not be reduced in the number of its sylla- 
bles without being destroyed ; as, man, father, safe. 

A DERIVATIVE WORD 

57 Is one which is made by adding one syllable or more, not 
an entire word, to the primitive form ; as, man-/i-wess, father-Zy, 
safe-^y. 

A COMPOUND WORD 

58 Is one which is formed by uniting two or more simple or 
primitive words ; as, man-kind, father-in-law, safe-guard. 

*The sound of w is that of represented by 00, a vowel sound; yet, as to 
is never used alone to constitute a syllable as the part of a word, but is al- 
"''^ays, when sounded in its own place, spoken with its following vowel, it is 
reckoned among the consonants, as above described. Wh is sounded like 
hw ; as in when, hwen — hoo-cn, hoom — the last combination giving the or- 
dinary sound of the word when — hoo-m, hooen — hwen, when. 



24 



ETYMOLOGY. 



[Parts of 



ETYMOLOGY 

59 Treats of the classification of words, their changes 
and derivation. 

WORDS, 

60 With respect to their meaning, and their relation to other 
words, are divided into Ten Classes, called Parts of Speech — 
thus, 

NOMENCLATURES. 





New Nomenclature. 




Old Nomenclature. 


1 


NAMES, 


1 


Nouns, 


a 


SUBSTITUTES, 


2 


Pronouns, 


8 


ASSERTERS, 


3 


Verbs and Participles, 


4 


ADNAMES, 


4 


Adjectives and Articles, 


5 


MODIFIERS, 


5 


Adverbs, 


6 


RELATIVES, 


6 


Prepositions, 


7 


CONNECTIVES, 


7 


Conjunctions, 


8 


INTERROGATIVES, 


8 


Adverbs, 


9 


REPLIERS, 


9 


Adverbs, 


10 


EXCLAMATIONS. 


10 Interjections.* 



NAMES— NOUNS. 
61 A name is an independent vv^ord used to distinguish an ob- 
ject or idea which may be considered separately or alone ; as, 
Marly 7Voman, John, Harriet, city, tncth, mountain, river. 
[Read numbers I, II, III, and IV, of the Lecture.] 



*Let the teacher read , with the utmost care, the Lecture immediately 
following the definitions of the different parts of speech — let him be careful 
to give the pupil clear views of the distinctions of the parts of speech — let 
him not allow the pupil to commit to memory a word of any definition till 
the meaning of the different parts, and of the whole of each definition shall 
have been made plain to his mind. Q^Let the teacher remember that it is 
the business of an author to define principles in the simplest, clearest man- 
ner possible, with one set of words, and that Ct^^it is iheteacher^s business 
to adapt these definitions word by word, if necessary, to the pupil's mind, 
and thereby to enlarge, quicken and elevate the mind itself. Let him mark 
this well. 



Speech.'] eytxMOlogy. 2S 

SUBSTITUTES— PRONOUNS. 

62 A substitute is a word substituted for a name, phrase, or 
sentence, and sustaining, to other words, the same relations that 
are sustained by a name ; as, 

John was my enemy, but he is my friend. / relieved him in his dis- 
tress ; which excited his gratitude and affection. Maria loves her book. 
[Read V, VI, VII, and IX of the Lecture.] 

ASSERTERS— VERBS. 

63 An Asserter is a part of speech used to assert, or to express 
existence, or a fact* in relation to a person or thing : as, 

I am. Julia walks. John ated.n apple. The apple was eatenhy John. 
[Read X, XI, XV, XVII, XVIII, and XIX, of the Lecture.] 

AN INTRANSITIVE ASSERTER 

64 I. Denotes the mere existence of the subject of remark ;'\ 
as, I am — or 

II. It denotes an action or fact of the subject, without repre- 
senting it either as affecting an object, or as extending to an ob- 
ject ; as, 

5z.ne vmJks. John sleeps. Henry fell. Grdiss g^'ows. Flowers bloom. 

[Read XX, XXI, and XXII of the Lecture.] 

*The word fact, is used here, and throughout the book, to represent 
something as done, or something mentioned, that may be done, or that 
which occurs or happens. The distinctions of the asserter, as Intransitive, 
Transitive, and Receptive, are given here to assist the learner in distinguish- 
ing the relations of case^ (see Case,) which are closely connected with 
these distinctions of the asserter. 

jTo determine what is meant by the subject of rtimark, or the subject, as 
mentioned in this book, find, first, the asserter ; as, am—{\ am at home.) 
Then take, with the asserter, just words enough to make the briefest re- 
mark that can be made of any person or thing ; as, I am. Here is the brief 
remark ; and I, the person speaking, am the subject of the remark. 

" George caught a dove." Find the asserter. It is the word cawg:^;. — 
Take, w'ith the asserter, just words enough to make the briefest remark that 
can be made of the person or thing. George caught. Here it is seen that 
the 7non, George, is the subject of this brief remark — is the subject of re- 
mark — is the subject. 

"Helen died of Consumption, in England." Here the asserter is the 
"word died. Take, with the asserter died, ^ust words enough to make the 
brief remark. Helen died. Who is the subject of this storv, narration, or 
remark ? The ptrson, Helen. She, then, is regarded in Grammar, as in 
fact, the subject of remark, ♦' the subject." 

*' The farm was purchased of Henry, by John." Was purchased is the 
asserter. The farm was purchased, is the brief remark ; and the fattft^ 
itself, not the w^ord f-a-r-m is the subject of remark — is " the subject.'* 

3 



26 ETYMOLOGY. [Purts of 

A TRANSITIVE ASSERTER 

65 Represents an action or fact of the subject as affecting an 
object, or as extending to an object ; as, 

James ate an apple. George caught a dove. Julia loves her brother. 
[Read XXIII, XXIV, and XXV of the Lecture.] 

A RECEPTIVE ASSERTER — Passive Verb, 

66 Represents the fact, denoted by the asserter, as received by 
the subject, or as extended to the subject ; as. 

The apple teas eaten. The dove was caught. Henry is loved. 
[Read XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, and XXX of the Lecture.] 

ADNAMES—ADJECTIVES and ARTICLES. 

67 An ad-name is a part of speech added to a name or a sub- 
stitute, to limit its meaning ; or to show the quality, class, kind, or 
condition of the object denoted by the name or substitute ; or, to 
show how the object, as an object merely?, is to be regarded ; as, 

This book. The apple is sour. Brass clocks. John is virtuous. He 
is happy. Which book is mine ? JVo book is faultless. What a book John 
has bought! [Read XXXI to XL, of the Lecture, including both.] 

MODIFIERS— ADVERBS. 

68 A modifier is a part of speech used to modify the meaning 
of the sentence or the clause of a sentence in which it occurs ; as, 

Harriet is wof at home. George h certainly my fviend. Seth studies 
attentively. [Read XLI, to XLIX of the Lecture, including both.] 

RELATIVES— PREPOSITIONS. 

69 A relative is a word used to show the relation of an event 
to an object, or the relation of one object to another ; as, 

1 went to Utica in Oneida county. Helen v^'alked across the street. — 
George resides in the city of New York on Manhattan island. 
[Read L, and LI of the Lecture.] 

CONNECTIVES— CONJUNCTIONS. 

70 A connective is a part of speech used to connect mere 
words, and sentences ; as, 

John and Julia are happy because they are wise and good. Seth went to 
church, but Henry remained at home. 
[Read LIT to LXIof the Lecture, including both.] 

INTERROGATIVES— ADVERBS. 

71 An interrogative is a word used only to inten'ogateconcetiX' 
ing something before expressed ; as, 



A 



Speech.} etymology. 27 

We should detest vice, but pity its victims and seek to relieve them. — 
Why ? James will go home to assist his father. When ? 
[Read LXII and LXIII of the Lecture.] 

REPLIERS— ADVERBS. 

72 A repller is a word or phrase used only to reply to a fore- 
going question or remark ; as, 

Should we improve our time ? Yes. Can man escape from the pres- 
ence of his Maker ? JVo. 

[Read LXIV to LXVII of the Lecture, including both.] 

EXCLAMATIONS— INTERJECTIONS. 

73 An exclamation is a word or phrase used merely to express 
emotion ; as, 

Oh virtue ! how lovely thou art. Alas / I can fear nothing worse than 
I feel. 

[Read LXVIII, LXIX, and LXX of the Lecture— then read the "Rk- 
capitulation" and the "General Correlative Arrangement ;" and then 
read the whole Lecture till you understand every part of it. Then you 
may proceed.] 



LE CT URE 



ON 

THE DISTINCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 



NAMES— NOUNS. 

I. A name Is an independent word ; a word which makes full 
sense of itself, or without reference to another w^ord ; as, many 
John, city, New- York, truth, love, modesty, goodness. These 
words are independent. They make full sense, taken separately, 
or unconnected with other words. They may be connected with 
other words, but the other words are not necessary to the sense 
of these ; as these make full sense of themselves. 

II. A name is used to distinguish an object or idea ; as, man 
— this word distinguishing such a being from all other kmds of 
beings : John — this word distinguishing one man from other men, 
from other beings of the same kind : truth — this word distinguish- 
ing the idea of this principle, (opposed to falsehood,) from any oth- 
er idea : something — this word distinguishing the idea expressed 
by it, from the idea of nothing or the absence of every thing : 
nothing — this word distinguishing the idea expressed by it, from 
the idea of any thing generally or particularly regarded. 



28 I.ECTURE. {JVamef and 

III. A name Is a word which distinguishes an object or idea of 
which we can think without thinkiny of any thing else — an ob- 
ject or idea which we can consider or contemplate alone or uncon- 
nected with any thing else ; as, man^ John, truth, modesty, S^c, 
It is perceived that each of the ideas, thus expressed, may be re- 
garded or considered separately or alone, or by itself, or without 
our considering other objects or ideas with them. 

IV. " John runs." " John is beaten." Here, first, the word 
John is an in'lependent word. Next, it is used to distinguish an 
object, a person, this man, from other men. Next, although the 
word John distinguishes an object that is connected with some- 
thing which he does, the fact of his running, or that of his being 
beaten, and though it represents a person who is not regarded sep- 
arately ; yet it represents one who may be considered or regarded 
separately or unconnected with the fact of his running, or of his 
being beaten — separately from what he does or what is dojie to 
him. The Vv^ord John is therefore a name according to the defi- 
nition of a name. [Teacher — pupil; turn back and read the 
definition of a name.] 

SUBSTITUTES— PRONOUNS. 

V. A substitute is a word substituted for, or taking the place 
of, a name, a phrase, or sentence. Thus, "John was sick, but he 
is well." [John was sick, but John is well.] It is seen that the 
word he stands in the place of the name John — is substituted for 
the name John. " James gave, for a load of wood, five dollars and 
a half, (or five and a half dollars,) which was too much." Here 
it is seen that the word which is substituted for the phrase five 
and a half dollars, as it was this whole sum, (not dollars mere- 
ly, as two dollars,) which was too much. "James went from New 
York to Boston for fruit ; but it was unnecessary." Here it is 
perceived that the word it is substituted for the whole sentence be- 
fore it, to which it refers. What was unnecessary ? Why, the 
fact, that 'James went from New- York to Boston for fruit.' The 
word it embodies and expresses the sense of all this. It was this 
fact which was unnecessary. 

VI. A substitute is a word which sustains, to the other words 
of a sentence, the same relations that are sustained by a name. — 
Thus, John. was sick, but he is well — but John is well — the word 
he standing in the same relation that the word John, repeated, 
would sustain, having the asserter is and the adname well refer- 
ring to, and depending on it ; just as the name John would have 
had ; as it does have, in the sentence following the one in which 
the word he is used. 



^Uhtituiis.) LECTURE. 29 

VII. 'James paid, for his load of wood, five and a half dollars, 
which was too much' — [tvoo dollars, or mere dollars would not 
have been too much ;] five and a half dollars was too much. — ' 
Here the substitute wldch sustains, to the asserter was, the same 
relation that a name sustains, having the asserter was depending 
on it ; as the money, or amount of money was too much. 

VIII. When a substitute is used to represent the sense of a 
whole sentence, the sentence itself could not, in its own shape, or 
form, sustain the same relation that the substitute sustains ; but 
the substitute sustains the same relation that would be sustained by 
a name expressing the same idea. Thus, 'James went from New 
York to Boston for fruit; buti/, [the fact,] was unnecessary.' This 

fact was unnecessary. Here we perceive that the substitute it, 
(which embodies the sense of the whole sentence,) sustains, to the 
other words of the sentence, the same relation that is sustained 
by the name/ac?, in brackets, following the substitute it. Hence 
we find, that the principle of the substitute is that, and that only, 
described by the definition. [Read the definition of a substitute.'] 

Contrast of Jfcimes and Substitutes, 

IX. A name is an independent word distinguishing some thing. 
A substitute does not distinguish any thing. " He left it where 
he had broken z7." The words he and it are not names — they are 
not independent words, or words which make sense of themselves 
— for no one can tell who or what is meant by the word he, (wheth- 
er a man, a dog, or some other animal) — no one can tell what is 
meant by the word it, (whether a carriage, or looking-glass, or a 
pitcher,) — yet when I say " John left the carriage where he had 
broken it," all perceive that the words John and carriage, are 
names, being independent words used to distinguish objects ; but 
he and it are not names ; for they do not, can not, distinguish 
any thing. Yet, the words he and it, being substitutes for the 
names John and carriage, and referring to these names, derive 
their particular meaning from that reference. These substitutes 
do not distinguish objects ; but, as substitutes, they do represent 
the objects already distinguished by the names, {John and carri- 
age,) for which the substitutes stand, and to which they refer. 

ASSERTERS— VERBS. 

X. The asserter is contemplated and named according to its of- 
fice, nature, and use, where it first appears — in its primary form; 
that is, in the form in which it is used as one word, in connection 
with the substitute / to afl^rm a present fact ; as, I am, I love, I 

3* 



so I.ECTURE. (Asserters.) 

readj I rim. In this place, in this connection, these words are first 
contemplated, and are named. In this place, form and connection, 
any word which asserts any thing, either existence^ or any factj 
or any thing as done, IS AN ASSERTER, AND IS CALL- 
ED AN ASSERTER IN ALL THE VARIOUS FORMS, 
AND RELATIONS, AND CONNECTIONS, IN WHICH 
IT BRINGS TO MIND THE IDEA OF THE FACT AS- 
SERTED BY IT IN THIS, THE PRIMARY FORM. 

XL Thus, I write; the word write asserting the fact done by 
me. Now I say, I had written^ I am writing, I shall write, or 
will write. In each of these examples, the same idea, the idea of 
the writing, is expressed. These different examples are only dif- 
ferent forms and relations in which the assertive principle of the 
word write is made to appear. These remarks account for the 
choice of the name asserter. The man who asserts is an assert- 
er ; and the word which asserts, is, on the same principle, termed 
an asserter — as, a heater, that which induces heat ; a runner, that 
which runs. 

XII. " Terms of distinction,^' in science, are intended to in- 
dicate more or less particularly the principles which they are 
designed to represent ; and definitions are intended to supply 
any deficiency in these terms in describing principles definitely, 
or with exactness. 

XIII. However the words called asserters may be used, they 
always express existence or facts in relation to persons or things ; 
as, Have I written? can I write ? John ; write, I have told John 
to write. In each of these examples it is seen that the fact of 
writing is expressed, whether interrogatively, imperatively, or 
otherwise. It is therefore true that what the term asserter may 
seem to fail of describing, the definition completely describes. — 
Besides, even in interrogative remarks, the asserter, of itself, or 
alone considered, asserts the fact expressed ; though the mode of 
arranging the asserter, or parts of the asserter, with another word, 
may make the expression interrogative — thus, 

HAS WRITTEN. 

This mere asserter asserts the fact of the writing as having been 
done by somebody not mentioned ; and when I say 

JOHN HAS WRITTEN, 

I assert the fact of writing no more than by the other expression ; 
but now the fact of writing is asserted of a particular person dis- 
tinguished by the word Johnj connected with the asserter : and 
when I say, 



(Contrasts.) lecture. St 

HAS JOHN WRITTEN ? 

I use the same words that I used before. The asserter has writ-- 
ten, as now used, does, it is seen, by the mode of arranging its 
parts with respect to the name John, constitute, with that name, 
an interrogative sentence : yet the asserter has written, taken 
without the name John, would assert the fact of writing, though 
not attributing it to any particular one as the writer. The words 
themselves, {has written,) would assert; but the mode of arrang- 
ing the parts with respect to the name John — this interrogates. 

XV. When I use the name John alone ; as, John — there is no 
assertion ; but when I say " John runs,^^ it is seen that the term 
runs asserts what the man John does. Runs is therefore named 
an asserter. 

XVI. The name asserter indicates the office of the part of 
speech in its jonmary form and place, and its general business in 
other forms and places — and what the name fails to accomplish, the 
dejfinition makes complete. [Turn back and read the definition.'] 

Co7itrast of JVatnes, Substitutes, and Asserters, 

XVII. " John left the carriage where he had broken it." — 
John and carriage are names — are independent words used to dis- 
tinguish objects that may be considered separately or alone. They 
are not substitutes. They are not words substituted for other 
words, but are used, of themselves, to distinguish objects. They 
are not asserters. They are not used to assert any thing, or to 
express facts. They are mere names. 

XVIII. He and it are not names. They are not independent 
words used to distinguish objects or ideas. They are not asserters. 
They are not used to assert, or to express existence or facts in re- 
lation to persons or things. Hed.ndit are mere substitutes ; stand- 
ing as representatives of the names, John and carriage. 

XIX. Left and had broken are asserters ; both being used to 
assert facts. They are not names. They are not independent 
words, or words used in describing events without having refer- 
ence to other words on which to depend. The name John is used 
to distinguish the person, without reference to whom, these assert- 
ers would not be used in describing the events as mentioned. — 
Left and had broken are used to distinguish ideas ; but they are 
not independent words — (as just mentioned above) — nor do these 
words, kft and had broken, as used in the sentence, distinguish 
ideas to be considered separately or distinctly from the person as 
the actor — the one who broke the carriage and left it ; but they 



32 LECTURE. [Asserters 

distinguish ideas which must be considered in connection with the 
actor, and not separately from him. They assert facts done by 
him — are asserters. 

Contrast of Intransitive, Transitive, and Recep- 
tive Asserters, 

XX. First, an Intransitive Asserter represents the mere exis- 
tence of the subject ; as, I am at home ; John was at school ; the 
Creator exists in an independent state. 

XXI. Next, an intransitive asseiter expresses an action or a 
fact of the " subject of reinarky'^ without representing the action 
or fact as either affecting an object, or as extending from the sub- 
ject to an object ; as, 1 sleep, I walk, the grass grows, flowers 
bloom in spring, water flows, the river swells, the bird flies, truth 
triumphs. 

XXII. From this, it is seen that an asserter is intransitive if it 
expresses either the mere existence of the subject, or an action or 
a fact of the subject, which is not, by the asserter, represented as 
extending to an object. 

XXIII. A Transitive Asserter is one which expresses an ac- 
tion, or a fact of the subject, and represents the action or fact as 
affecting an object, or as extending to an object. Thus, John ate 
my apple. Here the asserter ate represents an action of the sub- 
ject, the man John, as affecting the object, the fruit, the apple. 
The asserter ate is therefore transitive. John could not have eat- 
€71 without eating something ; from which it is seen that the as- 
serter ate is transitive, whether the object is, or is not mentioned. 
George caught a bird. Here the word caught asserts that the 
act of catching was performed, and is, therefore, an asserter. — 
By the asserter's relation to the name George, it attributes the act 
to the man denoted by that name. The asserter caught clearly 
represents the action as extended to, and as affecting, some ob- 
ject, (the bird, as here expressed,) for no one can catch without 
catching something. Caught is hereby, of itself, seen to be trans- 
itive with, or without, an object expressed or mentioned.* 

*With some asserters, having, respectively, different meanings, it is ne- 
cessary to use the word denoting the object affected, if we would indicate 
that the asserter is used in the transitive sense : as, •* John sunk ten feet be- 
low the surface of the water." JohUy himself, i? here represented as hav- 
ing sunk in the water. Sunk is here used in the mtransitive sense. It rep- 
resents the act of the man John, as the subject, without representing the 
action as extending to, or as affecting any object. *' John sunk the boat»" 
(caused the boat to sink.) Here the asserter 5unA;, used in ihQ transitive 



contrasted.) lecture. 33 

XXIV. "James loves his brother." The word loves asserts 
a fact as done. It is therefore an asserter. It represents the fact 
denoted by the asserter, as extending to an object ; for no one 
can love without loving something — for, to love, is to extend, to 
the object loved, the tenderness of emotion called love. The as- 
serter love is therefore necessarily transitive : for though this fact 
of the subject may not affect an object, (in the usual sense of the 
term affect,) yet it clearly represents the fact of the subject as ca:- 
tending to the object, as something Ipved. 

XXV. " James owns a farm." Here the word ow7is asserts 
a fact, (in the true English sense of the word fact,) and repre- 
sents the fact of owning as extending from the subject to some- 
thing, (the farm,) as the object owned : for no one can own with- 
out owning something ; and whether that something is, or is not, 
mentioned, does not at all affect the sense of the asserter owns. — 
So is it with such asserters as keep, possess, purchase, S^'c. <S)'C. 

XXVI A Receptive Asserter may represent the fact denoted 
by the asserter, as either received by the subject of remark, or as 
being extended to the subject of remark. " The apple was eat- 
en.''^ Here the fruit is the subject of remark, and the asserter 
was eaten represents the subject of remark as receiving, (at the 
time referred to,) the very action which the asserter denotes— or 
it represents the action (of eating) denoted by the asserter, as re- 
ceived by the apple, the fruit, as the subject of remark. The ap- 
ple, the subject, received the action — the apple was eaten. The 
act of eating was extended to the subject, and was received by 
the subject. The asserter is therefore called a receptive asserter, 
because asserting the reception, by the subject, of the action de- 
noted by the asserter. 

XXVII. " The dove was caught by George." Was caught, 
as here used, asserts that the subject, the dove, received the act (of 

sense, is shown by the objective word boat, to be so used ; as here it repre- 
sents an action of the man, the subject, as both extending to, and affecting, 
the oi/ec/, the boat. "The fox sprung forward." Here the asserter 
sprung is used in the intransitive sense. It represents the subject of remark 
as acting, but not that the action extends to or affects an object. " The fox 
sprung the trap.'* Here it is used in the transitive sense, for it denotes 
a fact of the subject, which is represented as extending to, and as atfecting 
an object. It embraces the meaning of two asserters, adding the transitive 
sense of caused, to the before intransitive sense of the asserter spring — - 
(sprung.) He caused the trap to spring. "The bell rings." John rings the 
bell. Asserters of this character were formerl)' used only in the intiansi- 
tive sense ; but by the commendable tendency of mankind to shorten the 
paths of the mind, they have been made to assume the transitive mean- 
ing. 



34 LECTURE. {Mnames.) 

catching) denoted by the asserter. Was caught is therefore call- 
ed a receptive asserter — the fact of catching denoted by the assert- 
er, being represented as having been extended to, and received 
by, the bird, as the subject of remark. 

XXVIII. " The farm is ov^^ned by John." Here the asserter 
is owned represents the fact denoted by it as being extended to 
the farm^ as the subject of remark ; as the thmg owned — for if 
the fact of owning had not extended to the subject, as here men- 
tioned, the subject or farm could not have been owned. Was 
owned is therefore receptive according to the definition of the re- 
ceptive asserter. 

XXIX. " The house was guarded — was kept from harm." — 
The asserters was guarded and was kept, as here used, are recep- 
tive according to the definition — for they represent the facts deno- 
ted by them, as being extended to the house, as the subject of re- 
mark — for unless the facts of guarding and keeping had been ex- 
tended to the house, the subject, the house could not have been 
guarded and kept. 

XXX. §c^N. B. Remember, that in all these distinctions of 
the asserters, and in those of Case, the " subject of remark" is 
to be considered and limited as in the Notej on page 25. 

ADNAMES— ADJECTIVES. 

XXXI. An adname is so called from its relation to, and de- 
pendence on, the name to which it is added ; as, good men, sweet 
apples, this book, that apple. When I say " good man," it is 
seen that the word good is added to the name man, to show the 
quality or character of the person, the man. When I say, '*the 
man is good,"*^ it is seen that the word good is added, in sense, to 
the name man, just as much as when I say, " good man." The 
word added, as used in the definition, means, joi/iec? in sense ; so 
that the adname is a v7ord joined in sense with the name : and 
it makes no difference whether the adname stands before the name, 
as in ' good man,' or comes after the name, as in ' the man is 
good."* In both examples, the adname good has the same mean- 
ing, and the same relation to the name man. In both examples 
the adname good is joined in sense with the name to show the 
quality of i\iQ person. " Good Lord deliver us from evil." — 
Here the adname good is added or joined to the name Lord, to 
show the quality or character of the being. " The Lord is good." 
Here the word good is joined in sense with the name Lord just 
as much as it was when standing before the name. In both ex- 
amples, the adname good is joined in sense with the name — is ad" 



(Adnames.) lecture. 35 

ded to the name, to show the quality of the being denoted by the 
name. 

XXXII. In the example, good man, the pupil may ask, good 
what 1 [good man.'] In the example, good Lord, he may ask, good 
what? [good Lord.] The man is good — good what? — what is 
good ? the man is the good object mentioned. A straight stick 
— the STICK is straight — good man — or the man is good. The 
adname is often joined to the substitute for the name : just as I, 
owing Henry ten dollars, do, in effect, pay him^ when I pay his 
attorney or substitute, who hands the money to him. I may say, 
" John is happy ;'"' or, having mentioned John, I may say, He is 
happy. In both examples, the word, the adname happy, refers to 
the man, and shows the condition of the man. From all of these 
remarks and examples, we learn why this part of speech is called 
adname — added to a name — relating to a name — depending on a 
name, or substitute for a name. 

XXXIII. The purposes for which adnames are joined to, and made 
to depend on, names, are various. Thus — This man, that man, 
two men, ten men, the man whom I met, a man, any man. — 
The words in Italics are added to the names to limit, in certain 
ways, the meaning of the names, as applied to certain objects. 

XXXIV. A good man, a sweet apple, a large house, green 
fields. The words in Italics, are added to the names to show 
the qualities of the respective objects. 

XXXV. JVhich man is my friend } IVhat a student that is ! 
JVo man is utterly wretched. The words in Italics show how 
the objects, as objects merely, are to be regarded. 

XXXVI. Richard is wealthy, a wretched man, a happy man, 
George is sick, James is miserable. The words in Italics are 
added to the names to show the condition of the objects. 

XXXVII. A country merchant, city laws, church ordinances. 
The words in Italics are added to the names to show the cla^s 
of the objects. 

XXXVIII. Brass clocks, wooden wheels, woollen garments. 
The words in Italics show the kind ; including, of course, the 
quality. 

XXXIX. An asserter may be used merely to show what a 
thing does, without the least reference to the quality or kind of 
the thing. An adname may be used merely to show the quality 
or kind of the thing, without the least reference to what it does^ 
or what is done to it. Thus, 



S6 LECTURE. {Modifiers.) 

XL. Birds — a name. — Birds ^^ 527?^. ^S'm^r, an assserter. — 
Canary ^i^ birds — Canary, an adname — 

Canary DCr' birds .=£:{ sing. 

Here it is seen that the name birds distinguishes the creatures, 
the fowls referred to, without any reference to theii kind, or to 
what they do. The word Canary is used only to show the land 
of birds, without any reference to what they do. The word sing 
is used only to assert or show what the birds do, without any ref- 
erence to their kind. The word birds points neither way. The 
word Canary points forward to the name birds, and no farther ; 
while the word sing points back to the name birds, and no farther. 

MODIFIERS— ADVERBS. 

XLI. An adname is used in reference to the name of an ob- 
ject. A modifier is used in reference to a phrase or a sentence 
describing a lact, or an event. 

A qualifyino^ adname, (one showing quality, class, kind, or con- 
dition,) qualifies the object to which it refers. The modifier of- 
ten qualifies the sense expressed by a whole sentence. " John is 
a good man." Here the adname good shows the quality of the 
object, the man, merely. "John writes elegantly.'^ Here the 
word elegantly qualifies the event, or fact, (of the man's writing,) 
just as the adname good qualifies the inan, merely. 

XLH. The modifier is, to the sentence, just what the adname 
is to the, name. The adname qualifies the object, and refers to, 
and depends on, the name of the object. The modifier qualifies 
the event or fact as described, and refers to, and depends on, the 
sentence describing the event, describing what happens or what is. 
It modifies the meaning of the sentence, and thereby often quali- 
fies the fact. Thus, " John is a careless boy." " John walk- 
ed carelessly around the lion's cage.'' Here the word careless, 
an adname, shows the quality or character of the boy, as an ob- 
ject, without any reference to what he does, or what is done to 
him ; and the word carelessly, in the next sentence, shows the 
quality or character of the particular ct'ewf — that of the boy's walk- 
ing around the lion's cage, without reference to the general char- 
acter of the boy. Careless, the adname, refers to the naine of 
the object, and shows the character of the object denoted by the 
name. Carelessly, the ad-sentence, or modifier, refers to the sen- 
tence describing the event, and shows the character of the event 
which the sentence describes. 



{Modifiers.) lecture. 37 

XLIII. The mere adname refers only to the object. The 
mere modifier refers to the whole of the fact or event, or chain of 
ideas described in the connection. It refeis to the subject, the ex- 
istence of the fact denoted by the asserter, the time, place, cir- 
cumstances, &c. 

XLIV. gr^While the modifier does this, it exerts its modify- 
ing influence particularly and chiefly on that which it is the chief 
aim of the speaker or writer to express. [It follows what in Lo- 
gic is called the predicate — that which is chiefly affirmed or ex- 
pressed of the subject of remark.] Thus, " James is certainly 
at home." * James is at home.' Here the man James is the 
subject ; and that which I wish chiefly to affirm of him, is his being 
aty (not near,) home, — (not another place,) and the word certain- 
ly^ while it refers to the words, /ames and is, (expressing the sub- 
ject and his existence,) throws its influence of emphasis and as- 
surance upon the sense of the two words, at home : for, to repre- 
sent John as being at that place, is my only aim or purpose in 
mentioning him at all. [I do not mean that he certainly is j as 
no one doubts that : but I m.ean that he is certainly at home.] 

XLV. *' Jane and Helen are assuredly my friends." Here 
the modifier assuredly, though referring to the sense of all the 
v?ords before it, throws its chief influence upon that which is my 
chief and only aim in mentioning the ladies at all — the fact of 
their being my friends ; not the fact of their existing, as no one 
whom I address has any doubt of that. 

XLVI. " I could not see George when I called at his father's 
house yesterday morning." Here the modifier not is used, not to 
deny that I could see ; (I could see perfectly well,) but to deny 
what would otherwise be affirmed — that /, (not another person,) 
could see, (not hear of,) George, (not another man,) when /, (not 
James,) called at, (not sent to,) his, (not my,) father^s, (not 
uncle's,) house, (not barn,) yesterday, (not day before yesterday,) 
morning, (not afternoon.) It throws its modifying, negative in- 
fluence over the sentiment expressed by the whole of the rest of 
the sentence. 

XLV II. A modifier refers to the whole sentence or particular 
clause of a sentence in which it occurs ; but it always has a more 
special reference to one part of the sentence or clause than to the 
rest of it. [ Turn back and read the definition of a modifier.'] 

Contrast of Mnames and Modifiers. 

XLVIII. " An honest man deals justly with his neighbors." 
Here it is seen that the adname honest is used only to show the 
4 



38 LECTURE. (^Relatives and 

character of the person denoted by the name inan to which the ad- 
name honest is joined or added in sense. The adname honest is 
used to show the quality of an object without reference to a par- 
particular event, to what the man does, or to what is done to him — 
"while the modifier justly, is applied in its influence to the whole 
of the rest of the sentence to show the character of the event ; to 
qualify the fact expressed by the sentence. The adname refers 
to the name on which it depends, and qualifies the object denoted 
by the name. It has no reference to a particular event or fact. 
The mere modifier refers to the whole sentence or particular clause 
in which it occurs, and shows the character, not of an object, as 
an object merely ; but of the event which the sentence, or clause 
of a sentence describes. 

XLIX. Remember that the modifier is to the sentence, what the 
adname is to the name or substitute — that the modifier qualifies the 
event, or modifies the meaning of the sentence, just as the ad- 
name qualifies the object, or limits the meaning of the name. 

RELATIVES— PREPOSITIONS. 

L. A relative, as the name indicates, is a word used to show 
relation — to show the relation between one object and another ; as, 
John Williams, in Utica, is my friend — the word in, showing the 
relation which the man bears to the city : the former being in, or 
within the limits of, the other : or, in other circumstances, 

LI. The relative is used to show the relation which an entire 
event, (action and actor,) bears to an object ; as, James walked 
around the house. Here the relative around shows the relation 
between the entire event of James\ walking, and the house as the 
object around which he walked. The word around does not, as 
here used, show the relation between the name James, and the 
name house : for one name is not around the other. It does not 
show the relation of the man James, to the building, the house : 
for the man was not around, (extended around,) the house. He 
was not long enough ! to reach around the house. The word a- 
round is used only to show the relation between the fact or c- 
vent of the man'^s walking, and the house as the object around 
which he walked. 

\_Turn hack and read the definition of a relative.'] 
CONNECTIVES— CONJUNCTIONS. 

LII. A connective, as the name indicates, is used to connect 
words, or to join words or combinations of words to each other ; 
as, " John and Helen are wiy friends." Here the word " and*"* 



Connectives.) lecture. 39 

connects^ and is used only to connect, the two names, John and 
Helen. It is therefore called a connective. " John is sick" — 
one sentence describing an event. " James is well" — another 
sentence describing another event. Here we have two classes or 
combinations, of three words each — and each combination describes 
one event. 



John is sick, but \ James is well. 



LIII. Here it is seen that the word hvt is not a part of either 
combination ; and that it does not assist in describing either event. 
" John is sick," tells one storv, and " James is well," tells the 
other — while the word hut^ not being a part of either combination, 
does not aid in describing either event ; but stands merely as a 
connective word — a connective^ joining the two classes or combi- 
nations of words which describe the respective events. 

LIV. {jt^=>The word hut., as used above, does not express an 
additional idea — does not add anything to the sense of the expres- 
sion ; but merely connects the words which do express distinct 
ideas. But is herein seen to be a mere connective. 

[Turn hack and read the definition of a connective.~\ 

Contrast of Relatives and Connectives, 

LV. A relative is not used for the purpose of connecting ; 
though it does connect, as does also the asserter. Thus, "John 
met Henry." Here the asserter i7iet really connects, as much as 
the word and in the next example — " John saw George and 
Henry :" yet the word met is not called a connective, because it 
is not used for the purpose of connecting ; being used only for the 
purpose of asserting the fact done by one person to another ; and 
therefore called an asserter. 

LVI. A relative connects — thus, " John died iwUtica." Here 
the word in connects the name Utica with the words describing 
John's death — ' John died' — ' John died in Utica.' Though the 
word " in" connects, yet it is not used for that purpose ; but on- 
ly to show the relation of the event of John's death, to the city 
as the object or place in which he died. 

LVn. Words are named from the chief design of their use. — 
Connectives are not used to show relation, but to connect. They 
are not called relatives, but connectives. Relatives are not used 



40 LECTURE. {Inter, and RepH.y 

to connect — for the purpose of connecting ; but only to show re- 
lation. Therefore, they are not called connectices, but relatives. 

Lvm. ^ John, iviih Henry, went to Church. > 
Illustration. ^ John a7id Henry went to Church. 5 

LIX. With, as here used, shows the relation of the man John 
to the man Henry, while performing the act of going to church — 
one being with, or in the company of, the other. With is used to 
show this relation of one person to the other, and for no other 
purpose. Both persons went, at the same time, in company, to 
the same place. 

LX. And, as used in the diagram, in contrast with the rela- 
tive with, is employed only to connect. It shows no relation : for 
when I say, " John and Henry went to church," I do not there- 
by indicate any relation as existing between the persons mention- 
ed — I do not indicate that they went at the same time. [One 
may have gone in the forenoon, and the other in the afternoon.] 
I do not indicate that they went in the same direction, or to the 
same place. [One may have gone to the eastern, and the other 
to the western church,] yet both of them, " John and Henry, went 
to church." 

LXI. And connects the two names, but shows no relation. 
With is used only to show relation — for the purpose of showing 
relation; though it has an incidental, (not intended,) connecting 
influence. 

INTERROaATIVES— ADVERBS. 

LXII. This part of speech, as its name indicates, is used to ask 
a question or to interrogate — thus, " John : I saw your father 
yesterday." [John asks,] " Where ?" " Harriet : Julia must 
go home." [Harriet asks,] " WhyV 

LXni. These words are not added or joined to asserters. — 
One person makes a remark, and the other, by the use of the in- 
terrogative word, asks the question. [The principle, itself, hav- 
ing suggested the name, to the writer of this work ; the name, in 
turn, suggests the principle to the pupil. The name, the defini- 
tion, and the fact being in three-fold harmony, concord, or co-in- 
cidence.] 

REPLIERS— ADVERBS. 

LXIV. This part of speech, as its name represents, is used in 
reply to some foregoing question or remark — thus, "Jane: will 
you accompany me to church to-morrow V [She answers b^ the 



(Exclamations.) lecture. 41 

word] " Fes" — which word ijes, constitutes a full reply to the fore- 
going interrogation. " Helen : are you opposed to improve- 
ment ?'^ " TVo." The word no, as here used, constitutes a full 
reply to the foregoing question. 

Contrast of Interrogaiives and Repliers, 

LXV. Both of these parts of speech refer or point back to 
something already expressed : but the former interrogates concern- 
ing what has been expressed ; and the latter constitutes a full 
answer or reply to a foregoing interrogation or remark. They 
are the opposites of each other — thus, 

LXVI. We should love virtue and hate vice. ^^ 

yVhy ? Interrogative. 

LXVII. Should we love virtue and hate vice ? c^II 

Yes. Replier. 

EXCLAMATIONS— INTERJECTIONS. 
LXVIII. The name of this part of speech seems a sufficient 
definition of it ; for, Grammar or no-grammar, it is nothing more 
or less than the name indicates — a mere exclamation. 

LXIX. Interrogatives and repliers point hackio what has been 
expressed ; and exclamations, when used in relation to sentences, 
point forward to what is to be expressed ; to the sentence describ- 
ing the fact which excites the emotion expressed by the exclam- 
ation ; as, 

LXX. "Oh ! I have lived in vain :" "Alas ! I fear for life.^ 
Recapitulation, 

LXXI. From the foregoing, it is seen, that we have, in the 
language, ten sorts of words ; each, different from all of the others : 

LXXII. 

1 NAMES — Independent words, used to distinguish persons or 
\ Nouns 1 things that may be considered separately or 
'- J distinct from other ideas : as, man, virtue. 

LXXIII. 
^ ^W^SJnUl IS— Dependent words, used, not to distinguish 
[ Pronouns 1 P^^^^^^ ^^ things, but to represent what oth- 
'- ■ ' er words distinguish ; as, he, it. 

4* 



^2 LECTURE; ( RecdpUulotiim .) 

LXXIV. 

^ ASSERTERS— -^e/jenfZerzf words, used to assert, or to ex- 
I YerhsJ] P^®^^ existence or facts in connection with 

persons or things ; as, John lives^ virtue re- 
wards her followers with peace. Asserters 
distinguish ideasy yet not as distinct or sep- 
arate, but as connected with others. 
LXXV. 
4 ADNAMES — Dependent words, used to limit the meaning 
\AdiectivesA ?^ names or substitutes ; or to show the qiml- 
-^ ity or character of the objects denoted by 
names or substitutes ; as, this book, two 
books, happy man. Some adnames distin- 
guish ideas, yet not as distinct or separate ; 
but as connected with, or pertaining to, the 
objects denoted by the words on which the 
adnames depend. 
LXXVI. 
^ Modifiers — Depew^fe?^? words, used to modify the meaning 
[Adverbs 1 ^^ sentences, or to show the quality or char- 
•- '-^ acter of events ; as, "John is not at home." 

" Seth writes elegantly.''^ These words are 
used to distinguish ideas, yet, not as distinct 
or separate ; but as connected with facts or 
events. 

LXXVII. 

® RELATIVES — Dependent words, used to show the relation ex- 

rp . . -, isting between an event or fact and an object, 

I p lion .j or between one object and another ; as, James 

spoke to Henry. George Jackson, at school, 

in Boston, is my cousin. These distinguish 

ideas, yet not as distinct or separate, but as 

connected with other ideas, events, or objects. 

LXXVIII. 
^ CONNECTIVES — Dependent words used to connect other words 

r^ . ,. T orto ioin words or sentences to each other ; 
[Conjunctions.] ^^^ j^^^^ ^^^ j^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ H^^, 

ry excelled them both. These, the mere con- 
nectives, distinguish no particular distinct i- 
deas ; they add nothing to the sense : but are 
used to connect words which do express ideas, 
or add something to the sense of the expression. 



(Recapitutation.) tECTiTBE. 4gr 

LXXIX. 

8 INTERROGATIVES— ^epe?ic?ew/ words, standing distinct and 

p., 7 -, separate from other words, and used only to 
■- '-^ ask questions concerning sentiments before 

expressed ; and depending, for sense and use, 

on foregoing remarks. 
LXXX. 

9 REPLIERS — Dependent words, standing distinct and separate 

[ AfJ hi ^^^^ other words, and used only to answer 
'■ '-• foregoing questions, or to reply to foregoing 

remarks ; and depending, for sense and use, 
on foregoing remarks. 
LXXXI. 
1^ EXCLAMATIONS — Independent words, used, not to distin- 
rj f ' f' -1 guish objects or ideas which may be consider- 
'- ^ '-' ed separately or alone, but only to express e- 

motionSj [not facts,'] in reference to facts or 
circumstances contemplated.* 

LXXXII. 

Arrangement of the Ten Parts of Speech, exhib- 
iting their traits of similarity and dissimilarity. 

OF THESE, WE USE, 

For representing objects, - - | ^XLTJ. 

For expressing facts, - ' ' { Asserters. 

r? vc • S Adnames and 

For qualifying, - - - [ModijUrs. 

For showing relation, - ' ' { Relatives. 

For connecting, .. - - <j Connectives. 

For asking questions, merely, - - •{ Interrogatives. 

For replying to questions, &c. - -J Repliers. 

For expressing emotions, merely, - ■{ Exclamations. 

*9Cf"From the above recapitulation, it is seen that we have but ^t^o parts 
of speech that are independent words — the name and the exclamation, 
which make full sense of themselves : and that the other eight parts of 
speech are dependent on other words for their meaning, or their place in the 
sentence. Qcf-Let this be impressed, by the teacher, on the pupil's mind, 
to aid him in understanding the characteristics of the different words of 
the language. 



44 LECTURE. {Recapitulation.) 

LXXXIII. {|t^^To these ten parts of speech, philosophically 
classed, philosophically named and defined — philosophically distin- 
guished — belong all the words of the English Language. By 
many, it has been thought a matter of mere taste, fancy, or ca- 
price, in authors, to determine how many parts of speech they 
will have : but by reading this lecture, it will be seen that the 
number of the parts of speech is fixed in, and by, the genius of 
the English Language ; just as much as the number of kinds of 
roses is fixed, by the economy of Nature, in the real, existing 
differences in plants and flowers. 

LXXXIV. {Jt^The first seven parts of speech, are all which 
are used as parts of sentences, regularly constructed, for expres- 
sing ideas in connection. The next two are used distinct and sep- 
arate from, yet relating to, other words ; and the last is used dis- 
tinct and separate from construction with other words ; yet some- 
times relating, and sometimes not relating, to what is expressed 
by other words ; as in the examples, XCI, XCII, XCIV, XCV. 

4 12357561 7 

LXXXV. Happy man ! he labored long and faithfully for mankind ; but 
23 6217 3 24 16 1. 

he has gone to his rest, and is enjoying his great reward in Heaven. 

LXXXVL Here the words man, mankind, rest, reward, and 
Heaven are names, used to distinguish what objects are meant. — 
He-he, and his-his are substitutes, used to represent the object 
distinguished by the name man, for which the substitutes are u- 
sed, and to which they refer. 

LXXXVn. Labored, has gone, and is enjoying, are asser- 
ters, used to assert certain facts concerning the person mentioned. 
Happy and great are adnames, used to qualify the two objects, 
the man and the reward mentioned. 

LXXXVIIL Long and faithfully are modifiers, used to qual- 
ify the event of the man^s laboring for his race — for mankind. 

LXXXIX. For, to, and in, are relatives : the first, used to show 
the relation between the event of the man's laboring, and the race, 
[mankind] — as the object /or which the labor was performed — to, 
used to show the relation between the fact of the man's going, 
and the state or condition to which he passed — and in, showing 
the relation between the fact of the man's enjoying his reward, 
and the place, [Heaven,] in which he enjoys it. 

XC. And, but, and and, are connectives — the first and con- 
necting the two modifiers long and faithfully ^ yet adding noth- 



{Recapitulation.) lecture. 45 

ing to their meaning — but, merely connecting the two sentences 
which express the two events, yet not adding any distinct idea to 
the sentiments expressed — and the last and, merely connectmg 
the two asserters and their attendant words, (" has gone to his 
rest" — " is enjoying his reward in Heaven,") both of which phra- 
ses refer to the man expressed by the word he — jet the sense of 
the sentence given would be precisely the same without the con- 
nectives as with them : though the connectives, being mere steps 
for the hearer's or leader's mind from one part of the sentiment to 
the other, tend to make the sentence more smooth and agreeable. 

XCI. G eorge : you must go home. .4^ 

" Why ?'» 

XCII. Seth : are you waiting for Henry's return ? ^CH 

JVo. 
XCIII. From the foregoing it is seen that the interrogative why, 
and the replier no, stand, respectively, distinct from the sentences 
to which they individually refer — one person aflirming a fact, and 
the other demanding, [by the word why,] the reason ; and anoth- 
er person asking a question, and the one interrogated answering 
by the replier no. Each of these parts of speech refers to its own 
foregoing sentence ; but both stand distinct from the sentences to 
which they refer. 

XCIV. Alas! { "The joys that fortune brings, 
Xf' ( " Are trifling, and decay." 

Here the exclamation ^/as, stands distinct from the sentence de- 
scribing the fact to which it refers. 

XCV. Ohdear*!— Whylf 

These exclamations are often used distinct from sentences, and 
without reference to facts mentioned by sentences. 

Conclusion, 

XCVI. Let not the teacher or the pupil be in haste to go on. 
Let the teacher exercise the pupil extensively and variously, on 
the different parts of speech till the pupil can distinguish them at 
sight. 

XCVIL Let the pupil remember that his proficiency in all the 
exercises which may follow, will depend greatly on his having ac- 
quired a knowledge of what is inculcated by the foregoing lecture. 

*Properly, Bea! 

tSpelled w-h-y, but when used as an exclamation, pronounced loy, the 
letter h being, then, a mute. 



46 LECTURE. (Questions.) 

The common saying of " the more haste the less speed,''^ is nev- 
er more justly applicable than to the earlier exertions of students 
in learning the grammar of any language. 

XCVIII. Let the teacher require the pupil to distinguish the 
parts of speech as they occur in his reading lessons ; and when 
he shall have shown himself accurate and ready in this, he may 
be allowed to proceed to examine, in detail, the peculiarities of each 
of the parts of speech, the rules, &c. &c. 

Questions on the definitions of the different Parts 

of Speech^ and the Lecture. 

NAMES, SUBSTITUTES, AND ASSERTERS. 

What is a laame ? see number 61*. What are the leading traits of a 
name ? see i, ii,ni. What is a substitute ? 62. Give examples. What are 
the two leading traits of a substitute '? see v, vi. Explain the difference 
between a name and a substitute : see ix. What is an asserter ? see 63. In 
what place and form is it named asserter? see x. What are " terms of 
distinction" used to do ? What is said of definitions? see xh. What do 
asserters always do ? Give examples: see xiii. What does the name as- 
serter indicate ? What does the definition do ? see xvi. Why are names 
not substitutes ? why are they not asserters? see xvii. Why are substi- 
tutes not names? why are they not asserters ? see xviii. Why are asser- 
ters not names ? xix. 

INTRANSITIVE, TRANSITIVE, AND RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS. 

Define an intransitive asserter. What is the first leading trait of an in- 
transitive asserter 1 see 64 i, and xx. What is the second ? see 64 ii, 
and XXI. What is a transitive asserter ? see 65. What are its two lead- 
ing tiaits ? First, It may represent an action of the subject, as affecting 
an object : Second, It may represent a fact, merely, as only extending to 
an object: see xxiv, and xxv. Define a receptive asserter: see 66. — 
What are the two traits of this asserter ? see the first three lines of xxvi. — 
Give examples of the first trait : see xxvi. Give examples of the second 
trait : see xxviii, xxix. How is " the subject of remark'' to be consid- 
ered ? XXX. What is taught by the note f, page 25. 

ADNAMES. 

What is an adname ? see 67. Why is it so called ? see xxxi. What is 
the diflference in the influence of an adname when standing before a name, 
and when coming after it. Give examples. For what six particular pur- 
poses are the adnames joined to names ? see xxxm to xxxviii, including 
both. What is the difference between an asserter and an adname ? see 
XXXIX. Explain the diagram xl. 

MODIFIERS. 

What is a modifier ? see 68. To what does an adname refer ? to what 
does a modifier ? see xli. In what respects are adnames and modifi- 
ers similar? in what; dissimilar ? see XLii,and xliii. What is taught by 
XLiv ? What does the modifier certainly, particularly qualify ? see xlvi. 
What is the modifying influence of not ? What is taught by xlvii ? by 
XLViii ? What is said, at last, in xlix, of adnames and modifiers ? 



{Questions.) lecture. 4i 

RELATIVES AND CONNECTIVES. 

What is a relative ? see 69. Why is it so called ? see l. What is 
taught by li ? What is a connective ? see 70. Why is it so named ? 
see Lii. Explain what is taught by 1.111. What is said of but, as used in 
the diagram lii. What does the word but do? what does it not do, as 
used in the diagram ? see l,iv. What is the difference between a relative 
and a connective ? see lv. How far does the asserter resemble the con- 
nective, and in what is it unlike the connective 7 see lv. In what respect 
does the relative resemble the connective ? see lvi. In what respect are 
they unlike each other ? see lvii. From what are the parts of speech na- 
med ? see Lvii : see the diagram lviii. What is said of with ? see lix. 
What is said of and? see lx. What is the difference between with and 
and ? see lxi. 

INTERROGATIVES, REPLIERS, AND EXCLAMATIONS. 

What is an interrogative ? see 71. Give examples and explain them: 
see Lxii. What is said of the interrogative ? see lxiii. What suggested 
the name to the writer? What is a replier? see 72. What is said of 
it 1 see Lxv. What is the difference between an interrogative and a repli- 
er ? see Liiv. In what respect are they similar ? see lv, lvi, and lvii. 
What is an exclamation ? see 73. What is said of this ? see lviii. la 
what respect are exclamations unlike interrogatives and repliers, in their 
reference to sentences ? see lvi, lvii, and lxx. 

RECAPITULATION. 

1. What is said in Ixxi ? What are the characteristics of names ? see 
Ixxii : of substitutes ? see Ixxiii : of asserters ? see Ixxiv : of adnames ? see 
Ixxv : of modifiers 1 see Ixxvi : of relatives ? see Ixxvii : of connectives ? 
see Ixxviii : of interrogatives? see Ixxix : of repliers? see Ixxx : of ex- 
clamations ? see Ixxxi. 

2. How many parts of speech are there ? see Ixxii. How many have 
we for representing objects ? What are they ? How many for expressing 
facts ? What is it ? How many for qualifying ? What are they ? How 
many for showing relation ? What is it ? How many for connecting? — 
What is it ? How many for asking questions or interrogating ? What is it? 
How many for replying ? What is it ? How many for expressing emo- 
tions ? What is it ? 

3. Is it a matter of mere taste or caprice in an author to tell how many 
parts of speech he will have ? or is the number fixed by the genius of the 
language ? see Ixxxiii. How many of the parts of speech are used as parts 
of regularly constructed sentences 1 see Ixxxi v. Read the sentence Ixxxv. 
What is said inlxxxvi ? whatinlxxxvii ? what inlxxxviii ? what in Ixxxix ? 
what in xc ? What is said in xciii concerning the diagrams of xci and xcii? 
What is said in xciv and xcv concerning examples given in these numbers 1 
What is said, in conclusion, in xcvi ? what in xcvii ? and what in xcviii ? 
{Remember these remarks.) 

PARSING 

74 Is describing the nature, distinctions, and powers of 
words, and, when united in a sentence, their relation to, 
and dependence and influence on, each other. 



48 LECTURE. {Exercises.y 

EXERCISES ON THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 



LESSON I. 
[Let the pupil distinguish the different parts of speech in the following 
lessons. Let the teacher require the pupil to distinguish the different parts 
of speech as they occur in different lines or sentences of his reading les- 
sons ; at least such as occur in simple relations ; not such as have com- 
plex characteristics and relations.] 

Cain killed his brother. Abel was killed by Cain. Maria loves her cous- 
in. My friends left their carriage, and walked towards the cataract 

They met Seth and Henrietta, returning from the mountain. We should 
be just to all men. Man should love and obey his Creator. 

LESSON n. 

William will visit his aged mother. When? I saw Maria and her uncle. 
Where ? James : Grammar is a useful science. You should be quiet in 
church. My aunt resides in Boston. I visited her and her nearest neigh- 
bor in the forenoon of yesterday. Did James go to school ? No. 

LESSON m. 

Clarissa and Julius went early to Sunday School. They learn their daily 
lessons well. Washington died at Mount Vernon, in the sixty -eighth year 
of his age. Jesus wept with Mary and her sister. He raised their brother 
[Lazarus] from the grave. ! glorious hope of endless rest. 

LESSON IV. 

Time flies rapidly. James studied attentively, and learned his lessons 
well. Julia writes elegantly. George is a good boy and kind brother. — 
He helps his little sister make her beds for the flowers. Henry Briggs went 
to New York and bought some goods. Hannah : will you attend church ? 
Yes. Abigail is my sister. Joseph teaches school. Seth loves his father 
and mother, and obeys them. 

LESSON V. 

Albert is a pleasant little boy. He goes cheerfully to school, and studies 
his books. Sophia is not at home. She went to New York early in the 
winter. Samuel bought a farm in Ohio. He intends to remove his family 
soon. Eveline is a good and beautiful young ladj. She is attentive to the 
wants of her parents and her brothers and sisters. Helen is an accomplish- 
ed girl. She is a first rate scholar. 

LESSON VL 

The fields are green in spring. The grass grows. The flowers bloom. — 
The air is fragrant and delightsome. I love to walk among the fresh, green 
plants, and flowers. Hannah studies botany. She has a little botanic gar- 
den in which she spends her mornings. She rises early and goes into the 
garden to dress the beds. The birds sing merrily among the trees. 



[Mxmes.] etymology. 49 

76 Remark. — In Etymology, are found only the distinctions oHhedif- 
ferent parts of speech, as such, and of their traits^ as seen in their subdi- 
visions. All directions for the use of the parts of speech in sentences, are 
reserved to be presented under their appropriate heads in Syntax. 



NAMES— Nouj^fs. 



"7^ A name is an independent word used to distinguish 
an object or idea, which may be considered separately or a- 
lone ; as, 

Man, woman, John, Harriet, city, truth. 

77 DISTINCTIONS OF NAMES. 

r General, 

I. Primary Distinctions, - - P-«->,-; 

\ Assertive, 
r Masculine, 

II. Distinctions with respect to Sex, i Feminine, 

^ ' ] Common, 

(^ Neuter. 



First- 



III. Distinctions of Person, - \ Second Person, 

(Third Person. 

f Singular form, 
... Plural form. 

IV. Distinctions with respect to Number, \ C Regular, 

j < Irregular, 
( ( Defective, 

( Subjective, 
. , , I Possessive, 

V. Distinctions of Case, _ - ^ Objective, 

j Independent, 
t Two-fold. 

I, Primary Distinctions, 

GENERAL NAMES CommOU NoUTlS. 

78 I. A general name is one which is general in its 
application to persons or things. 

II. It is one which represents a class or kind of objecte, 
not a collection of objects ; as, 

Man, woman, country, city, river, mountain, town, village. 
5 



W ETYMOLOGY. (JVames.) 

PARTICULAR NAMES — Proper Noumea 

79 I. A Particular name is one which is used to par- 
ticularize one person or thing. 

II. It is given to one object of a kind to distinguish that 
from all others of the same kind ; as, 
Charles, Hannah, George Washington, England, London, Hudson, Alps. 
COLLECTIVE NAMES — Nouus of Multitude .'f A 

80 A collective name is one, which, of itself, denotes a 
COLLECTION of distinct objects. These objects must be 

*a Particular names become generalhy being pluralized to represent fam- 
ilies or classes of objects or thmgs ; as, the Clintons, the PittSj the How- 
ards. 

b A particular name becomes general when used not to particularize a 
person or thing, but to show the character of one already denoted by anoth- 
er word ; as, Webster is the Demosthenes of America. Jackson is the 
Hannibal of the West 

JA Collective names become general when pluralized to represent sev- 
eral collections of the kinds which they denote ; as, the schools, the armies. 
Names distinguished as collective, require rules which are not applicable to 
mere general names ; as, the man is well, the family are well. 

B A collective name, (one distinguished as such,) means, net a collection 
of fixtures, or a collection of objects which, by nature, or necessity, are fix- 
ed to the ground on which they stand, or to which they are attached ; as, 
grove, city : but it denotes a collection of entire, distinct, individuals, con- 
sidered independently of situation or locality — a collection of objects which, 
without a change of character, are capable of moving, or being moved, from 
place to place. 

c Thus, the name forest, means a tract of land covered with trees. It 
includes the ground on which the trees stand, as much as the trees them- 
selves ; and the trees, if taken up and put upon wagons, would no longer 
constitute a /ort5<, but would be, merely, loads of trees. Forest, there- 
fore, is not deemed a collective name ; as it does not agree with the defini- 
tion of a collective name. This remark is applicable to the name orchard, 
which means the ground on, and in, which the trees stand, as much as it 
means the trees themselves. 

D Army is a name which is differently applied ; for, although an army 
must have a place to exist in ; yet, in speaking of an army, I do not by that 
name convey to the hearer any idea of the ground which the army occu- 
pies ; but only the idea of the individuals composing the army ; wherever, 
and however, the army may move, or be moved. 

E Let it be understood, then, that those only are to be called collective 
names which denote the collections of distinct, entire individuals, consider- 
edjndependently of a fixed locality ; as, school, library, multitude, mob^ 
assembly, peasantry, yeomanry; and that those whicii denote collections 
of objects, considered in connection with their fixed place or locality, are 
to be regarded merely as general names ; as, grove^ fruitery, vineyard, 
village^ city. 



{Mimes.) BYTMOLOGY. 01 

such as may be considered separately, and independently of 
fixed locality or situation ; as, 

School, army, company, troop, tea-party, congregation, assembly. 
ASSERTIVE NAMES — Participial Nouns. 

81 An assertive name is one which partakes the natures 
of an ASSERTER and a name ; as, 

Helen was commended for studying Grammar. Jack was punished for 
3tealing fruit.* 

11. Distinctions with respect to Sex. 

SEXf— GENDER. 

82 Sex is the medium of distinction between male and 
female animals; as, males, man, lion — females, wo-man, 
lion-ESs. 

MASCULINE NAMES AND SUBSTITUTES — MascuUm Gender, % 

83 A masculine name or substitute denotes a male crea- 
ture ; as, 

Man, lion, husband, father, son, he, his, him. 
FEMININE NAMES AND SUBSTITUTES — Feminine Gender."^ 

84 A feminine name or substitute denotes a female 
creature ; as, 

^Fb-man, lion-ess, wife, daughter, she, her. 

* Jack was punished for theft — theft ^ a mere name. 

Jack, the roguish boy, steals fruit — steals y a mere asserter. 

( theft. Here the word steal- 

Jack was punished for < g^g^LiNO ) . *"^ sustains to the rel- 
T , ,, . , 1 ' ^ 7 > fruit, ative /or, the same re- 

Jack, the roguish boy, steals J -^ i^tion that is sustained 

foy the mere name theft. Jack was punished for theft. Jack vs as punish- 
ed for stealing — and at the same time the word stealing sustains to the name 
fruit the same relation that the mere asserter steals^ sustains. Like the 
name theft, the word stealing expresses that for which Jack was punished, 
and like the word steals, it asserts what Jack did to the fruit. It acts the 
parts of an asserter and a name. It is an assertive name. 



t Words have not sex, but have traits which distinguish the sex of «rt- 
imals. Words, themselves, are distinguished in classes according to what 
they represent of objects in relation to sex. 

t Masculine and feminine names are often applied to neutral objects to 
characterize and particularize the objects ; as, the steam boat Julia, the 



62 



ETYMOLOGY. 



(JVames.) 



COMMON NAMES AND SUBSTITUTES — CommoTi Gender.* 

85 A common name or substitute is a term common to 
both sexes ; as, 

Firiend, parent, teacher, pupil, beast, bird, I, thou, thy, their, them. 

NEUTER NAMES AND SUBSTITUTES — Neuter Gender.lfA, 

86 A neuter name or substitute represents an object as 
being neither male nor female ; as, 

Field, tree, river, mountain, lake, hill, valley, it, its. 

87 The English language has three methods of distin- 
guishing between males and females. The first is by a differ- 
ence in the termination of words, as in the following ex- 
amples : 



Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Actor 


Actress 


Deacon 


Deconess 


Abbot 


Abbess 


Embassador 


Embassadrcss 


Adulterer 


Adulteress 


Emperor 


Empress 


Arbiter 


Arbitress 


Executor 


Executrix 


Administrator 


Administra^nx 


Elector 


Electrcss 


Ambassador 


Ambassadress 


Enchanter 


Enchantress 


Author 


Authoress 


Governor 


Governess 


Baron 


Baroness 


Hero 


Heroine 


Benefactor 


Benefactress 


Heir 


Heires* 


'Bridegroom 


Bride 


Hunter 


Huntress 


Count 


Countess 


Host 


Hostess 


Conductor 


Conductress 


Instructor 


Instructress 


Chanter 


Chantress 


Jew- 


Jewess 


Caterer 


Cateress 


Lion 


Lioness 



BloopJohn .ddams. Oh Earth ! thou mother of mankind. {For rules in 
relation to such «« Personification," see Syntax and Mlietoric.} 

* Common names are often properly applied to male, and to female ob- 
jects, to describe some characteristic of the objects relatively considered ; 
as, James is my friend, Helen is my assistant and adviser. 

fA Neuter names are often properly applied to male, and to female ob- 
jects, to describe their character or relation to other objects ; as, John is the 
staff of his aged parents. Helen is their solace and Joy. 

B In parsing words correctly used, we have only to describe them as they 
are. If masculine, feminine, or common names are applied to neutral 
things, parse them so, describing them as being used, as they are used. So 
also should we do in parsing neuter or common names, applied to male or 
female objects. Tell what they are, and how used. This is parsing them. 



{J^ames.) 

Males. 
Landgrave 
Peer 
Priest 
Poet 
Prince 
Prophet 
Patron 
Protector 
Prior 
Shepherd 
Sorcerer 



ETVMOI.OGY. 


sa 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Landgravine 


Songster 


Songstress 


Peeress 


Seamster 


Seamstress 


Priestess 


Sultan 


Sultana, Sultancss 


Poetess 


Tutor 


Tutoress 


Princess 


Tailor 


Tailoress 


Prophetess 


Traitor 


Traitress 


Patroness 


Tiger 


Tigress 


Protectress 


Testator 


Testatrix 


Prioress 


Viscount 


Viscountess 


Shepherdess 


Votary- 


Votaress 


Sorceress 


Widower 


Widow 



88 The second method is by a change of the entire word ; 



as. 



3Iales. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Bachelor 


Maid 


Lad 


Lass 


Beau 


Belle 


Lord 


Lady 


Boy 


Girl 


Man 


Woman 


Brother 


Sister 


Master 


Mistress 


Buck 


Doe 


Milter 


Spawner 
Niece [Singer 


Drake 


Duck 


Nephew 


Duke 


Duchess 


Singer 


Songstress, or 


Earl 


Countess 


Sloven 


Slut 


Father 


Mother 


Son 


Daughter 


Friar 


Nun 


Sir 


Madam 


Gander 


Goose 


Stag 


Hind 


Hart 


Roe 


Steer 


Heifer 


Husband 


Wife 


Uncle 


Aunt 


King 


Queen 


Wizard 


Witch 



89 The third method is by prefixing a name, substitute, 
or adname to the common name denoting the object ; as, 



Males. 
A man servant 
A cock sparrow 
A he goat 
A he bear 
Male ancestors 
Male descendants 



Females. 
A maid servant 
A hen sparrow 
A she goat 
A she bear 
Female ancestors 
Female descendants* 



5i ETYMOLOGY. {J^ames.) 

90 EXAMPLES OF COMMON NAMES. 
Friend Parent Animal 
Teacher Child Quadruped 
Pupil Stranger Beast 
Traveller Neighbor Dove 
Sojourner Christian Fish 
Companion Heathen Insect 
Associate Wretch Animalcule. 

91 EXAMPLES OF NEUTER NAMES. 

Book Life Degradation 

Canopy Joy Misery 

Darkness Virtue Despair 

Death Happiness Time 

Light Vice Eternity 

III. Distinctions of Person, 

92 Person is the medium of distinction between the one 
speaking or writing, as such, the object addressed or spoken 
to, and some other object spoken of. 

FIRST PERSON. *a 

93 A word of the first person, denotes, of itself, the person 
speaking or writing, as such, or it represents the speaker or 
writer, and those associated with him ; as, 

/am well. We must go home, taking our books with us. 

*a A name can never, of itself, represent that the person denoted by it, 
is the oae speaking or writing. A name can never be of the first person. 

b Some writers pretend that a name may be of the first person, if it de- 
notes the person who is the speaker, although it does not represent him as 
the speaker; as, ** I, Paul, the apostle." If this was true, then in the 
sentence, " I am he whom ye seek," the word Ac, must be of the first per- 
son ; for it denotes the one who is the person speaking, the speaker, though 
it does not represent him as the speaker— yet all deny that the word he, as 
a substitute, can ever be of the first person. 

c It is absurd to pretend that a name is of the first person, because it de- 
notes the one who is the speaker, when it cannot represent him as the 
speaker. A trick has been played in school. The teacher enquires for the 
rogue. He asks, " who is the boy that did the mischief ?" Here the name 
doy, is clearly of the third person. One says, " I think John is * the boy 
that did it* " — the name boy still being of the third person. John says, 
«* 1 am not * the boy that did it' " — the name Joy, being still of the third 
person. Another, (the rogue, himself,) seeing John in danger, steps for- 
ward and says, " I am * the boy that did the mischief* " — the word boy^ 
being still of the third persjn— still denoting the lad inquired for, « the 



{JKames) 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 



SECOND PERSON. 

94 A word of the second person represents the object de- 
noted by it, as addressed or spoken to ; as, 

Harriet; study your geography. " Son; give me thy heart." 

THIRD PERSON. 

95 A word of the third person denotes not the one speak- 
ing or writing, as such, but some other person or thing spo- 
ken of; as, 

Helen visited her friends in JVeW' York. George improves his time. 

IV, Distinctions with respect to JYumber, 

96 Number is the means of distinguishing between sin- 
gleness and plurality — between one, and more than one. 

boy that did the mischief.* The word boy, though of the third person, de- 
notes the one who is the speaker, though the word does not represent him 
as the speaker ; but only as the one enquired for, the rogue, * the boy that 
did the mischief* The sentence may stand thus : 

Henry is C 

or, < ' the hoy that did the mischief —the word hoy being- of the third 
I am ^ 

person, whether read with the name Henry, as, * Henry is the hoy;* or 
read with the word I, as, * I am the hoy.* The sentence may stand thus : 
Henry, who did the mischief, is ^ 

or, > * the hoy* to be punished — the name boy 

I, who did the mischief, am ) 
still of the third person. 

Henry, ^ 
or, > * the hoy that did the mischief,' ought to be punished. The word 

boy being still of the third person, however the sentence may be read : 
for though the speaker may represent himself to be the rogue, yet he speaks 
of himself, as of any other person, in telling who is • the hoy that did the 
mischief.* 

d As the person of a name or substitute is a quality or property of that 
word, in itself considered, and not an influence or quality reflected from an- 
other word, it follows, as a matter of course, that a word to be of any per- 
son, must agree in its own characteristics with the definition of that person ; 
otherwise, when I say " thou art the man that met me,'* the name man 
must be of the second person, and the asserter should be metst instead of 
mef— as, ** thou art the man that metst me." We do and should say, «* Thou 
who mets^ me art the man." Thou art the man who met me. 

c Any word, which, of itself, denotes that the one speaking or writing 
is meant, is of the first person. JVo other word can be. 



56 ETYMOLOGr. {JViimes.) 

SINGULAR FORM — Singular Number. 

97 The singular form of a name or substitute denotes a 
SINGLE object, or but one ; as, 

Man, woman, field, tree, river, city — I, thou, he, it. 

PLURAL FORM — Plural Number. 

98 The plural form of a name or substitute denotes a 
plurality of objects, or more than one ; as, 

Men, women, fields, trees, rivers, cities — we, ye, they, them. 

SUBDIVISIONS WITH RESPECT TO FORM. 

99 The subdivisions are three, Regular, Irregular, and 
Defective. 

Regular Names. 

100 A regular name is one whiph has s or es added to 
the singular form to make the plural ; as, 

Singular Form — Field, tree, apple, hand, church, box, kiss. 
Plural Form — Field*, trees, apples, hands, church-cs, box-M, kiss-es. 

101 Names not included in the tables m Syntax, as defective, 
and irregular, are regular in the formation of their plurals, which 
should be made from the singular form, as follows : 

102 Those ending in 5, cc, z, shy or ch sounded as in cheer, are 
pluialized by adding es ; as, 

Singular ; gasy kissy taxy buzzy lashy church. Plural : gas-cs, kiss-c», 
taX'Cs, &c. 

103 Those ending in other consonants, including ch, sounded 
like k, are made plural by the addition of s ; as, 

Singular ; cohy critic, lad, chief, ruff, snuff staff,* log, trough, brick, 
anarch, spoonful, portal, palm, nation, scrip, orator, haty curfew : Plu- 
ral ; cobs, critics, lads, chiefs, rufis, &c. 

104 Those ending in y, preceded by a, €, or o, in the same 
syllable, are pluralized by adding s ; as, day, valley, joy ; dayj, 
valleys, joys. 

105 Those ending in y, not preceded by a, e, or o, in the same 
syllable, are pluralized by exchanging the y for i, and adding es ; 
as, fly, flies, ally, allies, lady, ladies.| A name ending in i, is 
pluralized by adding es ; as, alkali, alkalies. 

* For leaf, sheaf, beef, thief, loaf, and wharf, exceptions, see Note f 
page 58. Staff, when meaning a walking stick, or cudgel, has the plural, 
staves ; otherwise it has the regular plural, staffs, distaffs, &c. 

\Penny is pluralized in this manner when pieces of money, valued at a 
penny each, are meant ; but is changed io pence when the amountis meant} 
as, twelve pence is a shilling. 



{J\ram€S.) ETYMOLOGY. 67 

106 Those ending in o, sounded like oo, (as in too,) or im- 
mediately preceded by another vowel, are made plural by adding 
s ; as, 

Singular ; canto^ nuncio, Scipio, bamboo, tattoo. Plural ; canton, nun- 
cio*, Scipio5, bamboos, tattoos.* 

107 Those ending in o, neither sounded like oo, nor preceded 
by another vowel, are pluralized by adding es ; as, hero, echo-^ 
heroes, echoes. 

108 [Particular names are exceptions to this rule ; they being 
pluralized by adding s only ; as, Cato, Pedro — the Catos, the 
Pedro*.] 

109 Those otherwise, ending with a, e,and u, are made plural 
by adding s ; as. 

Singular ; zebra, creature, palace, gnu, beau, bureau : Plural ; ze- 
bras, creatures, palaces, gnus, beaus, bureaus. [We have no irregular 
names ending in vowel sounds.] 

110 Those formed by a union with a modifier, or a relative 
and another name, have the sign of plurality affixed to the first 
name in the combination ; as, the commanders-in-chief, the broth- 
ers-in-law, the lookers-on. "f 

PARTICULAR NAMES. 

111 (J(^=»A11 particular names are regular in the formation of 
their plurals, to render them general names, and follow, according 
to their endmgs,the foregoing rules ; as, the Caesars, the Livings- 
tons, the Clintons. 

ALPHABETICALS AND NUMERALS, 

112 Used instead of the letters constituting their respective 
names, are pluralized by adding an apostrophe, (') and annexing 
the letter s ; as, the a's, the i's, the I's, the 2's, the 20's. 

113 [^S,h, and x, are exceptions ; they being pluralized by 
adding es, preceded by a hyphen ; (-) as, the s-es, &c.] 

1 14 The names of these letters and figures, when spelled in 
full, are pluralized by annexing an apostrophe, and adding s ; as, 
the 6e's, the ceh, the double-u's, the twoh, the threads. 

115 [S, h, and x, are exceptions ; they being pluralized by 
adding es, preceded by a hyphen ; as, the es-es, &c.] 

*Numerals and alphabeticals are exceptions. 

tThe word aid-de-camp is regularly pluralized as one word in English ; 
as, aid-de-camps, notwithstanding its French etymology, and the primary 
meaning In that language, of the individual parts composing the word. The 
word court-martial, should be written as two distinct words; as, court mar^ 
tial, [martial court]— pluralized, courts martial. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. {JVcmtesJ) 

Irregular Names* a 

116 An irregular name is one which has not s or es ad- 
d«d to the singular form to make the plural, but has its plu- 
ral made in some other way ; as, 

Singular form— Mzn, woman, child, foot, ox, mouse, basis. 
JPlural form—Men, women, chlld-ren, feet,ox-m, mice, bases. 

117 Names ending in fe are irregular, and are pluralized by 
exchanging / for v, and adding s ; as, knife, knires, life, lives — 
except fife, which is a regular name ; as, plural, fifes. 

118 Names ending in If, are irregular, and are made plural by 
exchanging/ for v, and adding es ; as, half, habc«, shelf, shelves.| 

119 Names ending with the syllable cis, sis, or is, immediate- 
ly preceded by the sound of s, are irregular, and are pluralized 
by exchanging the i of the last syllable, for e ; as,gla-d5, gla-ccs; 
the-sis, the-ses ; ax-is, ax-es. 

Defective Names* a 

120 A defective name is one which has not diflferent 
forms to distinguish singleness and plurality; as, 

Deer, sheep, wealth, wheat, tongs, shears, means, amends. 

121 Defective names are of several classes : First, those which 
are used only in the singular form, and singular sense ; as. 

Wheat Silver Haughtiness Humility 

Pitch Pride Contempt Pity 

122 Second ; those which are used only in the plural form and 
plural sense ; as 

Annals Calends Ides Shears 

Archives Drawers^ Lees Tidings 

123 Third ; those that are in the plural form, yet are always 
to be used in the singular sense ; as. 

News Billiards Pneumatics Politics 

124 Fourth ; those which, in the singular form, may be used 
in the singular or plural sense ; as. 

Deer Sheep Swine 

*a For the lists or tables of irregular and defective names, see Syntax. 

h All abstract names, or names of qualities considered apart from the 
objects to which they necessarily pertain, are defective names ; as, whiter 
or whiteness, blackness, darkness, redness. 

t Leaf, sheaf, thief, beef, and wharf, have /exchanged for v, and es, ad- 
ded ; as, loaf, loaves. 

X When meaning a garment — but the word drawer when meaning a 
fiiiding box, is a regular name. 



(JSTames.) etymology. 69 

125 Fifth ; those which, in the plural form, may be used in the 
plural or singular sense ; as, 

Wages Means Amends Gallows Bellows 

126 A name of this class is to be regarded as singular in sense 
when meaning but one fact, item, or event ; as, 

John lost his money in Buffalo ; and by this means, he was prevented 
from proceeding west. Seth's wages is twenty -five dollars per month. 

127 It is to be regarded as plural in sense when meaning more 
than one fact, item, or event ; as, 

Henry's health failed. His pecuniary disappointments multiplied. His 
store and mills were burned ; and by these means he became insolvent.^ 
The wages of the three brothers were difierent, according to their respec- 
tive ages. 

V, Distinctions of Case, 

128 Case ia' the relation which a name or a substitute 
sustains to an asserter or a relative, or to another name or 
substitute. 

SUBJECTIVE CASE — Nominatwe Case. 

129 I. A word in the subjective case represents the per- 
son or thing denoted by it as the subject of remark [d ) — or^ 

II. It describes or particularizes the person or thing deno- 
ted by the subjective word to which it refers; as, 

Helen writes elegantly. Flowers bloom in spring. Harriet, my friend^ 
is absent. That mart, is Mr. Adams. He is a statesman. The child was 
named Samuel. James is my cousin. The house is my property. Who 
is my neighbor ? What is death ?*a 

*u The words Helen, flowers, Harriet, man, he, child, James, house, who, 
and what, are in the subjective case from their agreement with part I, of 
the definition. They represent the ideas which they respectively denote 
or bring to mind, as being the subjects of the respective remarks : whether 
affirmative or interrogative remarks. 

b The words friend, statesman, cousin, property, neighbor, and deaths 
are in the subjective case, from their agreement with part II, of the defini- 
tion ; as these words are used to describe the persons and things denoted or 
brought to mind by the prior subjective words to which they respectively 
refer — are used to tell what the subjects are. 

c The words Mr. Adams, and Samuel, are in the subjective case, from 
their agreement with part II, of the definition ; for they are used to partic- 
ularize the persons denoted by the subjective words, man and child — used 
to show who the subjects are. 

d Ct5-The pupil should be particular to understand and remember the 
ecription of *« the subject of remark,'* as here ^iven- Thus, 

I. Find the asserter, which, taken with only the word on which it seems 
to depend, will make good sense, so far as the sense extends. '* Helen 



$0 ETYMOLOGY. (JVamcs.) 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

130 I. A word in the possessive case, represents, by its 
form, that the person or thing denoted b}' it, has, or pos- 
sesses something ; or, 

II. It is used to describe or particularize the possessor, 

writes elegantly." Writes is the asserter. II Then take, with the asser- 
ter, just words enough to make the briefest remark that can be made of 
a person or thing, and such as will express the nieaning or intention of the 
author. Helen is that word. Helen writes. Here is the briefest remark 
that can be made of any thing mentioned in the sentence. Who is the sub- 
ject of this remark ? It is the person, the lady, Helen . The name Hel- 
en is therefore said to be in the subjective case, from its denoting the per- 
son who is the subject of the story, narration, or remark. 

e •• James, with his books, returned to school." Find the asserter. It 
is the word returned. Take, with that, just words enough to make the 
briefest remark that can be made and express the meaning or intention of the 
author. Shall we take books? saying ' books returned' ? No I — for though 
this would make goo<l sense, yet it would not express the intention of the 
author. He means that somebody returned with the books. Which word, 
used, shows who that was ? It is the word John; as * John returned.^ — 
Who is the subject of this brief remark ? It is the man John. The name 
John, must therefore be in the subjective case ; because, representing by 
its relation to the asserter, that the man denoted by it, is the subject of re- 
mark. 

f '* The house is my property." Here the asserter is the word is. Take 
with the asserter, just words enough to make the shortest story that can be 
told, and express the meaning of the author or narrator. * The house is.* 
Which word represents the thing denoted by it as the subject of the re- 
mark or story ? The name house. This name is therefore found to be in 
the subject-ive case. 

g *' Who is dead." Here the asserter is the word is; and the word who 
denotes or brings to mind the idea ot what is the subject — of some person 
that is the subject of this interrogative remark. The word who represents 
what is denoted by it as the subject rf the interrogative remark. The word 
who is therefore said to be in the subject-ive case. 

h "Cain killed Abel in the field " Here the asserter is the word killed. 
Take, with the asserter, words enough to make the briefest remark that can 
be made. " Cain killed." Who is the subject of this remark ? The man 
Cain. The name Cain, is therefore said to be in the subjective case. 

i "Abel was killed by Cain in the field." Here theasserter is composed 
of the words was killed. Take, with the asserter, words enough to make 
the briefest remark that can be made. 'Abel was killed.' Who is the sub- 
ject of this remark ? The man Abel. The name Abel is therefore said to 
be in the subjective case ; as it represents the person denoted by it as the 
subject of the story or remark. 

;■ In simple sentences, not made interrogative by who, which, or whal, 
ta^e, with, and before, theasserter, only the word who, which, or what, 
(according to the sense,) and the word in the sentence, which answers the 
question asked by who, which, or what, before the asserter, is in the sub- 



{JVames.) etymology. 61 

as represented by another possessive word, to which it re- 
fers ; as, 

Maria's friend. John's book. Helen's success as a teacher is unrival- 
led. JWi/ dut} as a ic-nYer is to present facts. I called at iZ^ Judson the 
jeweler* s store. *a 

OBJECTIVE CASE. 

131 I. A word in the objective case represents a per- 
son or thing as the object of the fact expressed by a tran- 
sitive asserter, or of the relation expressed by a relative ; or, 

II. It is used to describe or particularize the object as rep- 
resented by another objective word lo which it refers ; as, 

James ate an apple'm the store. I respect George, as a man. Maria met 
her father at the concert. I visited my cousin, Mrs. Clinton, in Albany. f A 

jective case, according to the first part of the definition ; as, " John went 
home." Who want 'i '■John' The word John, as first used, answers 
the question who 1 and is in the subjective case, from its relation to went. 
" Is James sick ?" Is who sick ? The answer would be James The 
name /amc5, as used, is in the sw^jective case, denoting the person who is 
the subject of the interrogative remark. 

k When only the word ivho, or which, or what, is taken in the sentence, 
and before the asserter, to make an interrogative sentence that is given for 
you to examine, remember that whichever of these words is used to bring 
to mind, (thot)gh interrogatively,) the person or thing that is the subject 
of remark, affirmative or interrogative, this word is in the subjective case. 
[See the foregoing note g.^ 

I These directions for determining the cases of words are intended partic- 
ularly for words, as parts of simple sentences, expressing simple proposi- 
tions. Directions for determining the cases of connective substitutes, are 
given with the substitutes. 



*a Here the words Maria' s , .John'' s , Helen's, my, zxii jeweler^ s,zve seen 
to represent, by their forms, that the persons denoted by them, have, or 
po55e.5.s something ; leaving to the words immediately following to express 
the things possessed. These words, (the ones in Italic,) are therefore said 
to be in the possessive case. 

b The words teacher and writer are used to describe — to show the capa- 
city or character of the persons denoted by the prior possessive words to 
which the names, teacher and writer respectively refer. 

c " I reside on the farm of Henry Wilson." Here the name Henry Wil- 
son denotes the person who is the possessor: but as this name does not, " by 
its form," represent him as the possessor, it is not in the possessive case. [It 
is in the objective case denoting the object to which the farm is represented 
asbeingrelated, or as belonging.] It is not by the form of the name Henry 
Wilson, that the man is represented as possessing the farm. It is by the 
mere arrangement and association of the name with the words fartn and 
of, that he is represented as being the possessor. 

t A To determine the case of the different words of a sentence, find, first 
6 



62 ETYMOLOGY. {Jfamcs.} 

INDEPENDENT CASE — Nominative Case Independent. 
132 A word in the independent case is one which is free 
from the constructive dependence and relation described by 
the first three cases ; as, 

Julia : Maria has gone home.*a An honest 7nan, the noblest 7iJ0rA: of God. 
" The grave — how sweet its rest !" Thrice welcome [he friend who chides 
my faults. Religion — what treasure, untold, resides in that Heavenly 
word. 

the asserter ; and then the .subjective word ; as directed by note d, page 59, 
then proceed to find the objective case — thus, 

B " John ate an apple in the store." Here the asserter is ate — the sub- 
jective word, JoJui. Then, John, the subject ate v^hat object 1 [The ap. 
pie.} In what place as the object 1 [The store.'] B}- this it is seen ihat 
the name ap2yle is in the objective case, from its denoting the object which 
John, the subject, afiected by the act or fact of eating, denoted by the 
transitive asserter ate; and that the name store is in the object-'ive case, de- 
noting the room or place as the object to which the fact ot John's eating the 
apple is related. That relation is expressed or represented by the relative 
in. 

c " William bought a farm in Ohio." Here the asserter is bought — the 
subjective word is William, representing the man as the subject. William, 
the subject, bought what object ? [The farni] — in what place as the ob- 
ject ? [The statf Ohio.] By this, it is seen, that the name fayw, denotes 
the object of the fact of buying, expressed by the transitive asserter 6o?/g-A? 
— while the word Ohio, denotes the district of country as the object ia 
which, or within the limits of which, the farm is located. The two words, 
farm and Ohio, are both in the objective case ; one denoting the object of 
the fact expressed by a transitive asserter ; and the other denoting the ob- 
ject of relation expressed by a relative. 

D A word in the objective case may express the object of a fact denoted 
by a receptive asserter when this object and the subject of remark are both 
expressed ; as, " John was paid a dollar." Here John, the subject,wOiS paid 
the money, as the object — the v^'ord dollar being in the objective case. 

E "James came from New York, up the Hudson, by Albany, along the 
Mohawk, by Schenectady, to the city of Utica, in Oneida county." Here 
the asserter is ca/ne — the sub]etX[ve word is James; and all of the other 
names are in the objective case ; each, denoting the object of relation ex- 
pressed by a foregoing relative. 

*a Here the name Julia, stands distinct from the sentence describing the 
event, and independent of thdit senteuc.t — and, besides, it represents the 
person 2iS independent of, and unconnected with, the event or fact which 
the sentence describes. The name is therefore said to be in ihe indepen- 
dent case. 

b It is seen that the name Julia, does not represent the person as the 
subject of the remark or story ; nor is it used to describe or particularize 
the subject. It can not, then, be in the subjective case. The name Julia^ 
does not, by its form, represent the lady as having or possessing any thing ; 
nor does it describe or particularize the possessor. It can not. then, be in 
the possessive case. It does not represent the person as the object either of 



{AameS.) ETYMOLOGY. 68 

TWO-FOLD CASE. 

133 LA word in the two-fold case sustains a two-fold 
relation to the sentence ; or, 

an action or fact expressed by a transitive asserter, or of relation expres- 
sed by a relative. It can not, then, be in the objective case. It is seen to 
be free from, and independent of, the constructive dependence and relation 
described by the other three cases. It is in the independent case. 

c {t|=Let the pupil be particular to understand and remember that a name 
or a substitute is not necessarily in the independent case in consequence of 
its being of the second person: for whether I say to a person, •' Vou go 
home," or, ^^ John; go home ;" I mean the same : and the words, 3/0M and 
John, have the same relation to their respeciive as>;erters. Both words, i/oii 
and John, are alike of the second person — both, alike, represent the person 
addressed as the subject of the command, and both, alike, have the asser- 
ters referring to them, and depending on them to denote the person com- 
manded. Both alike, are, of course, in the subjective case. I may say, 

d You go home : ^ He went home : 

or > or, or 

John go home : ) John went home. 

It is seen that the first name John, has the eame relation to the asserter 

go, that the substitute you, has — j ist as the second name JoAwhasthe same 

relation to the asserter went, that the substitute he, has. The first name 

John, is just as much in the subjective before the asserter go, as the last 

naime John, is in the subjective case before the asserter went. 

e You ) , Here the word you, and the word John, sustain a 

John ^ S° ^' ■ common relation to the asserter go — for I may 
command the same person to do the same act, by saying to him, "John ; 
go home,'* as by saying to him, " You go home." 

f I h f ^vent home. Here it is seen that the name John, sustains 

\ go home, the self-same relation to the asserter go, ex- 

pressing the command to perform the action, that it sustains to the asserter 
went, expressing the action already performed. 

g When I speak to a person, naming him, and narrate some event con- 
cerning him, the name is in the independent case, just as clearly as whea 
I speak to a person and narrate some event concerning another persorw— 
Thus, 

John: you were at home yesterday : In each of these examples 

John : Henry was at home yesterday.* the name John constitutes 
no part of the sentence describing the fact referred to. In each example 
the name is in the independent case. 

h When I speak to a person and command him to do a certain act, the 
name of the person commanded is just as much in the subjective case, as 
the substitute for his name would be if that was used ; that substitute rep. 
resenting the same person in the same relation to the same act ; thus, 

John ; go home. '^ The punctuation of the first sentence does not 
You go home ) change the sense or relation of the words, at all. 

* The same may be said of the old example ; as 

*' Plato : thou reasonest well." 
Plato : Socrates reasons well. 



64 ETYMOLOGY. (JVbwiCS.) 

. II. It represents the relations indicated by several of the 
other cases ; as, 

John lent his book anl borrowed mine. Maria took Julia's gloves and 
left hers. James took whatever provisions were needed for the voyage. *a 

*a " John lent his book and borrowed mine." Suppose my name to be 
Henry. It is then seen that the word mine is substituted for the two names 
/Ze^ry and book ; and is in just as inanij cases, and just the same cases as 
the two words for which it stands, would be, if they were used. Thus, 



John lent his book and borrowed < ^"""^ * 

^ mine. 



book. 



Here the name Henry^s, is in the simple possessive czse, denoting only the 
possessor of the object borrowed ; and the wdxaebuok^ is in the simple objec^ 
tive case, denoting only the object borrowed ; whde the word mine being 
a substitute for both tlie nam^s Henry'' s aud book, and representing, fully, 
both the possessor and the object possessed, is seen to be in both cases — the 
two-fold case. 

b " Maria took Julia's gloves and left hers'*' Here the word hers, is 
seen to act the part of a substitute for the two names ./kfana's and g/owes. 
Thus, 

Maria took Julia's gloves and left \ h^^l^ ^ ^ ° 

The word hers, is seen to be a substitute for the name Maria's, in repre- 
senting the possessor, as such ; and is, therefore, in the possessive case. 
The word hers, is seen to be, also, a substitute for the name gloves, in rep- 
resenting them as the objects of the fact expressed by the transitive asser- 
ter left ; and is therefore in the objective case. From both circumstances, 
it is found to be in both cases, the possessive, and the objective case — one 
word in two cases — in the twofold case. 

c Speaking of Maria and her gloves, I may say, *' Julia's gloves were ta- 
ken, but ^^^'"''^^'^^gl^^^^] were 1^^^^ 

Here the word hers is in the two-fold case, representing the possessor^ as 
euch, and, of course, being in the possessive case ; and representing the 
gloves as the subjects of remark, and being in the subjective case from its 
relation to the asserter were left. 

rf "James took whatever provisions were needed." Which word, in 
this sentence, represents the objects of the action expressed by the transi- 
tive asserter took ? [The word provisions — He took the provisions ."] — 
Which word, in the sentence, represents the subjects of the second remark 
io the last part of the sentence, showing what were needed ? [The word 
provisions — The provisions were needed.'] It is herein seen, that the name 
provisions, is as much in the objective case as though it was not in any oth- 
er case ; for it is the only word used to show what objects James took: and 
that it is just as much in the swijective before, and in relation to, the asser- 
ter were needed, as though it was not in any other case : for it is the only 
word used to show what were needed — the self-same word representing the 
self-same provisions as being both taken and needed — the word whulever be- 
ing an indefinite specifying adname . 



(JYames.) etymology. 65 

THE DECLENSION 

134 I. Of a name, is changing' its shape to make its pos- 
sessive form, and to represent objects with respect to number. 

II. A name in the singular form is called a singular 
NAME — one in the plural form is called a plural name. 

135 EXAMPLES OF THE DECLENSION OF GENERAL NAMES. 

Singular. Plural. ^ 

Subj. form, A man, Subj. form. Men, 

Poss. form, A man's [books,] Poss. form, Men's [books,"] 

Obj. form, A man, Obj. form, Men, 

Indep. form, A man. Indep. form. Men. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. form, A senator, Subj. form. Senators, 

Poss. form, A senator's [duties,] Poss. form. Senators' [duties,] 
Obj. form, A senator, Obj. form, Senators, 

Indep. form, A senator. Indep. form, Senators. 



He took provisions : - - one simple sentence. 

Provisions were needed — another simple sentence. 

whatever 



James took^ provisions ^ were needed. 

A' ■ 



The word provisions is seen to be in the objective cdise, from its relation to 
the asserter took, with which it is connected by the brace ; and in the sub- 
jective case, from its relation to the asserter were needed, with which, also, 
it is connected. James took provisions — objective case — provisions were 
needed — subjective case. [For the cases of connective substitutes, see Con- 
nective Substitutes] 

/ The principle of condensation is carried so far, in English, that words 
are sometimes used in a three-'io\A relation or case, or a two-fold case in an- 
other sense ; being the possessive and the two-fold case : as, I shall buy Mr. 
Jackson's, or Mr. Henry's wheat : and you ma}' take whichever farmer's 
will suit you best. The word farmer^s denoting the possessor, {possessive 
case,] and at the same time being in the two-fold case ; that is, in the ob- 
jective case after may t^thf; and the subjective before vMl suit. 

whichever Subj. 



You may takej^J a farmer's OCf'will suit you best. 



Obj. 

[fitce the note under connective substitutes, which explains this farther.'] 
6* 



66 ETYMOLOGY. (JVatTies.) 

136 DECLENSION OF PARTICULAR NAMES. 

Singular. Plural* 

Subj. Maria, Subj. The Marias, 

Poss. Maria's [books,] Poss. Tiie Manas' [books,"[ 

Obj. Maria, Obj. The Marias, 

Indep. Maria. Indep. The Marias. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. Felix, Subj. The Felixes, 

Poss. Felix' [property,] Poss. The Felixes' [property, 

Obj. Felix, Obj. The Felixes, 

Indep. Felix. Indep. The Felixes. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. Mr. Fox, Subj. The Mr. Foxes, 

Poss. Mr. Fox's [property ,]| Poss. The Mr. Foxes' [property] 
Obj. Mr. Fox, Obj. The Mr. Foxes, 

Indep. Mr. Fox. Indep. The Mr. Foxes. 

137 From this view of the declension, it is seen that the only 
change of form which case requires in names, is the annexing of 
the sign which distinguishes the possessive form from the other. 

138 Both forms of a name inay be used in the two-fold case ; as, 

I will aid whdXever person shall need my assistance. I took Henry 'shook 
and left John's. 



Questions on JSTames,]. 

I. PRIMARY DISTINCTIONS. ^ 

What is a name ? 76. What are the Primary Distinctions of names ? 
77, I. What is a general name ? 78, I, H. Give examples. A particular 
name? 79, I, II, Examples. What does a particular name become by be- 
ing pluralized ? Note *a page 50. How, else, does a particular name be- 
come general? bp 50. What is a collective name ? 80. Examples. Does 

*Particular names become general by being pluralized. Collective names 
are declined like general names of the same termination ; but like particu- 
lar names, they become general by being pluralized ; as, the army, the ar- 
my's force — the armies, the armies' force. 

fRemember that such a name, followed immediately by an w/iaccented 
syllable has only the apostrophe ; as, Mr. Fox^ imjo;-z«ience. 

JFor the sake of brevity in referring to different parts of the work, the 
letter J9 will be used to represent the page, and the characters * f t, and 
the letters a, a, b, b, &c. will be used to represent the notes, or parts of 
notes referred to, on the page. The figures 76, 77, &c. refer to the differ- 
ent parts of the body of the work. 



{JStames.) etymology. 67 

a collective name become general ? JA What is taue;ht by fA, b, c, and 
D, \) 50. Is the word /oresi? a collective name 1 c. Why not 1 Is the word 
«r-wiy a collective name 7 d. Why? What, only, are to be called collec- 
tive names ?e. What is an assertive name ? 81, Examples. Explamthe 
bearing and relations of the word stealing in the diragram concerning Jack, 
♦p51. 

II. DISTINCTIONS WITH RESPECT TO SEX. 

What are the distinctions of names with respect to sex ? 77, II. What 
does a masculine name denote ? 83, Examples. A feminine name? 84, 
Examples. VL^ve words, sex? f p 51. What is a common name? 85, 
Examples. What is a neuter name ? 86, Examples. Are mascuhne and 
feminine names ever applied to neutral objects ? t p 51, Examples. Are 
common names applied to male, and to female objects ? Examples, * p 52. 
Are neuter names ever applied to male or female objects ? Why ? fA p52. 
How are words thus applied to be parsed? b. How many methods has 
the English language for distinguishing males and females ? 87. What is 
the first method ? 87, Examples. The second method ? 88, Examples. — 
The third method, 89 ? Examples. Examples of common names, 90 ; of 
neuter names, 91. 

III. DISTINCTIONS OF PERSON. 

What are the distinctions of Person 1 77, III. What does a word of the 
first person denote ? 93, Examples. Can a name ever be of the first per- 
son ? Why not ? *a. What is taught by h 7 by c7 hy d ? What word 
is, what word is not, of the tirst person ? e. What does a word of the sec- 
ond person represent ? 94, Exam. A word of the third person ? 95, Ex- 
ample. 

IV. DISTINCTIONS WITH RESPECT TO NUMBER. 

What are the distinctions of names with respect to number? 77, IV. — 
Whatdoes the singular form denote ?97, Exam. The plural form .? 98, Ex- 
amples. What are the sub-divisions of names with respect to number ? 99. 
What is a regular name ? 100, Examples. Where are names, not regular, 
found ? 101. What is taught by 102 ? 103 ? 104 ? 105 ? 106 ? 107 ? 108 ? 
109 ? 110 ? Ill ? 112 ? 113 ? 114 ? 115 ? What is taught by * p 56 ? by 
t p 56 ? What is said of aid-de-camp, and court martial? f p 57. What 
is an irregular name ? 116. What is taught by 117 ? 118 ? 119 ? What 
are defective names ? 120. What is taught by 121? 122? 123? 124? 
125? 126? 127? 

V. DISTINCTIONS OF CASE. 

What are the distinctions with respect to case ? 77, V. Whatdoes a word 
in the subjective case do ? 129, I, II, Examples. What is taught by d, p 
691 e? f? g ? h ? i ? j ? k? What does a word in the possessive case do ? 
130, 1, 11. Ex. What is said in *ahc ? What is said of a word in the objec- 
tive case ? 131, I, II. Ex. What is said in fA, p 61 ? in c, p 62? in d? 
E ? What is said of a word in the independent case ? 132. What is taught 
by *a, p 62 ? hy b? by c? by d? by e? by /? by g? hy h ? What is 
said of a word in the two-fold case ? 133. What is taught by *a, p 64 ? 
by 6 ? by t' ? by d ?— by e,f, p 65 ? What is the declension of a name ? 134, 
I. What is a name in the singular form called ? What one in the plural 
form ? 134, II. Repeat or read the examples in declension, in 135 — those 
in 136. What is taught by note * p 66 ? by f ? {^Read, carefully, there- 
mark in brackets at the head of the exercises in parsings commencing on 
_p 68 ] What is expressed by these remarks ? 



<I8 ETYMOLOGY. (JVumes.) 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



[The following exercises are intended for illustrating, particularly y the first 
part of speech, the name, in its own peculiar iraits, and its connection 
with the other nine parts of speech. The others are used for the con- 
struction of the sentences in which naines occur ; and, will, themselves, 
be particularly described in their appropriate places. The rules of Syn- 
tax need not be applied till the pupil shall have become acquainted with 
the principles on which those rules are based. 

The student of the old systems, will find that the author of this treatise dis- 
cards the use of the old and arbitrary term, '^ government,^' and uses, 
rather, the word dependence, and such other terms as describe the philo- 
sophical bearing, relations, and dependence of words considered with re- 
spect to each other.] 

LESSON VII. 
*« Janies Williams, my cousin, went from New York to Boston for some 

books, but he returned in the evening of the next day." 

James Williams is a name ; it is an independent word used 
to distinguish a person — an object that may be considered separ- 
ately or alone — particular ; it is used to particularize one object 
of a kind — masculine ; it denotes that a male creature is meant — 
of the third person ; it denotes, not the person speaking or wri- 
ting, as such, but some other object spoken of — in the singular 
form ; it denotes a single object, or but one — in the subjective 
case ; it represents the person denoted by it as the subject of re- 
mark, showing who went, and has the asserteriyew/, depending on 
it. [The asserter went would not make sense without the name ; 
as, * went from New York,' &c. 

My is a substitute; it is a word substituted for a name : [the 
name of the person speaking] — common ; it is a term common to 
both sexes — of the jirst person ; it represents the person speak- 
ing, as such — in the singular form ; it denotes but one — in i\\e pos- 
sessive case ; it represents the person denoted by it, as possessing 
or having something — it precedes, and depends on, the name cous- 
in^ showing what I have. [The word my would not make sense 
without the word cousin; as, my — my ! !] 

Cousin is a name, see number 76 — general ; it is a name 
which is general in its application to objects, see 78 — common, as 
applied in this place, to show the relationship of a male object, 
[James Williams :] see note b, page 52 — of the third person ; see 
95 — in the singular form, see 97 — in the subjective case , it is a 
name used to describe the person who is the subject of remark, 
see 129, II. [The cousin went — James Williams went — James 



{JSTames.) etymology. 69 

Williams, rny cousin, went.] It relates to the name/ames WiU 
Hams, and has, with that, a comnnon relation to the asserter went. 

Thus, 

James Williams^ 

or, Vwent, &c. 

my cousin ) 

Went is 2Ln asserter ; it is a word used to assert a fact in rela- 
tion to the man mentioned — intransitive; it denotes an action or 
fact of the subject, without representing the fact as extending to 
an object. 

From is a relative, showing the relation between the fact of 
James Williams' going, and Nev/ York, as the city, the object, 
from which he went. 

New York is a name, see 76 — particular, see 79 — neuter ; 
it represents the object denoted by it as being neither male nor fe- 
male — of the third person, see 95 — in the singular form, see 97 
— in the objective case ; it represents the city denoted by it as 
the object to which the event of the man's going is related, the 
object of relation expressed by the relative Jfrojn, to which it re- 
fers, and on which it depends. 

To is a relative, showing the relation between the fact of the 
man's going and the city of Boston, as the object to which he 
went. 

Boston is a naine, 76 — particular, 79 — neuter, 86 — of the third 
person, 95 — in the singular form, 97 — in the objective case, rep- 
resenting the city of Boston, as the object of the relation expres- 
sed by the relative to, to which it refers, and on which it depends 
for its associate sense. 

For is a relative, showing the relation between the event of 
the man's going from New York to Boston, and the books as the 
objects for which he went. 

Books is a name, 76 — general, 78 — neuter, 86 — of the tliird 
person, 95 — inthe jo/wra/ form, 98 — in the objective c^^st ', itrep- 
resents the things denoted by it as the objects for which the man 
went to Boston, the objects of the relation expressed by the rela- 
tive for, to which it refers, and on which it depends for its asso- 
ciate sense and place. 

But is a connective ; it is used only to connect the two senten- 
ces describing the two events, thereby uniting the two sentences, 
or forming them into one — *' James Williams, my cousin, went 
from New York to Boston for books," being one sentence, and 



70 ETYMOLOGY. (JVumes.) 

" he returned in the evening of the next day," being the other 
sentence. 

He is a substitute ; it is a word substituted for the name James 
Williams — masculine; it represents the object denoted by it as a 
male creature — of the third person ; it denotes not the person 
speaking, as such, but another object spoken of — in the singular 
form ; it denotes but one — in the subjective case ; it represents the 
person denoted by it as the subject of the remark describing the 
•event, [he returned] — and has the asserter returned, referring to 
it, and depending on it for its associate sense and place. 

Returned is an asserter, used to assert the fact done by the 
man James Williams, here represented by the substitute he; it is 
intransitive ; denoting an action of the man mentioned, as the sub- 
ject, yet of itself, not representing that action either as affecting 
an object, or as extending to any object- It refers to, and de- 
pends on, the substitute fie, to express the subject of remark of 
whom this fact is affirmed. 

In is a relative, showing the relation between the fact of the 
man's returning, and the evening as the period of time in which 
he did the act. 

The is an adname, a word added to the name evening to re- 
strict its meaning, to aid in marking more definitely the particular 
evening or time referred to. It is added to the name evening, 
and depends, for its use and place on that name. 

Evening is a name, 76 ; general, 78 ; neuter, 86 ; of the third 
person, 95 ; in the singular form, 97 ; in the objective case, rep- 
resenting the period, the evening, as the object related to the e- 
vent of the man's return ; and refers to, and depends on, the rel- 
ative to, showing that relation. 

Of is a relative, showing the relation of the evening as a short 
period, to the day referred to, the next day, as a greater period 
to which the evening belonged, and of which it was a part. 

The is an adname ; [parsed, with respect to the name ciay, just 
as the other word the was parsed with respect to the name even- 
ing.] 

Next is an adname ; it is added to the name day, and used 
with the word the, only, to limit the meaning to a particular day, 
the next day. 

Day is a name, 76 ; general, 78 ; neuter, 86 ; of the third 
person, 95 ; in the singular form, 97 ; in the objective ctuse, rep- 
resenting the period, the day, as the object related to the evening 



{JVames.) etymologt. 71 

as a part of the day, as the object of the relation expressed by the 
relative o/, to which the name day refers, and on which the name 
depends for its associate sense and place. 

[When the pupil shall have become sufficiently familiar with certain defini- 
tions to be able to give them, without hesitation, he should not be obli- 
ged to give the definition after each distinction ; but should be required 
to give these distinctions, and pass on ] 

LESSON VIII. 

1. " Henry : Seth has bought whatever apples were needed by his fam- 
ily." 

2. *' Julia borrowed my books and left Henry's," 

Henry is a naine, particular, masculine, of the second person ', 
\i denotes the object addressed or spoken to — in the singular form, 
in the independent case ; it here stands distinct from, and indepen- 
■dent of, the sentence describing the event, and represents the man 
(Henry,) as being independent of, and unconnected with, the e- 
vent described. 

Seth is a name, particular, masculine, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the subjective case representing the person 
denoted by it, as the subject of the remark or narration, and hav- 
ing the asserter has bought, (asserting what the man did,) de- 
pendmg on it. 

Has bought is an asserter ; a part of speech used to assert the 
fact done — transitive, it represents the fact denoted by the asser- 
ter as being extended from the subject to an object, (to objects, 
as here described,) to the apples mentioned — it refers to, and de- 
pends on, the name Seth, denoting him of whom the fact is assert- 
ed — denoting the subject of remark. 

Whatever is an adname, being added to the name apples to. 
limit its meaning, to show in what m.anner, and with what limita- 
tion the fruit, (the apples,) is to be regarded. 

Apples is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the 
plural form, in the two-fold case ; being used in a two-fold rela- 
tion to the other words of the sentence, in the two- fold case ; be- 
ing in the objective case from its relation to the asserter has bought, 
and representing the objects which Seth, the subject, has bought ; 
Seth has bought apples — and being in the s?i6jective case, repre- 
senting the subjects of the other remark or the other part of this 
remark — showing what t(?e?e needed; the apples were needed. 

Were needed is an asserter, a part of speech used to assert a 
fact — receptive, used to represent the fact denoted by the asserter,, 
as being extended to the apples as subjects of remark, and depen- 



72 ETYMOLOGY. (JVa»l(?5.) 

ding on the name apples to denote those things as the subjects of 
remark — of the remark — the apples were needed. 

By is a relative, showing the relation between the fact of the 
apples' being needed, and the family, as the association of persons 
by whom they were needed. 

His is a substitute, standing in the place of the name Seth. 
[Seth'^s family — his family,] masculine, of the third person, in the 
singular form, in the possessive case, representing, by its form, 
that the person denoted by it, has something, (the word family 
showing what he has,) and depending for sense and place on the 
word family, denoting the object possessed. 

Family is a natne, collective ; it denotes, of itself, a collection 
of distinct objects that may be considered separately and indepen- 
dently of fixed locality or situation — neuter ; it denotes an object 
which, as an object of contemplation, is neither a male nor a fe- 
male creature.* Of the third person, denoting not the one 
speakmg, as such, but another object spoken of — in the singular 
form, denoting but one collection, as a collection ; in the objective 
case, representing the family, unitedly considered, as the object of 
relation expressed by the relative by j the n^ime family, referring 
to, and depending on, the relative by. 

2. Julia borrowed my books and left Henry* s. 

Julia is a name, particular, feminine, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the subjective case, representing the person 
denoted by it as being the subject of the remark. It has the as- 
serter borrowed, depending on it to denote the subject. 

Borrowed is an asserter, transitive, referring to, and depend- 
ing on, the name Julia, to show of whom the fact is asserted. 

My is a substitute, standing for the name of the person speak- 
ing — common, a term common to both sexes — oi the first person, 
denoting the person speaking, as such — in the singular form, de- 
noting but one—in the possessive case, representing, by its form, 
that the person denoted by it possesses something ; and preceding 
the word books denoting the things possessed, and depending on 
that word. 

And is a connective^ a word used here to connect the two as- 



* This is true of any collective name ; as the mere collection or assemblage 
is neither a male nor a female, though the objects or creatures collected 
may be males, or females, or may be of both descriptions. See this treated 
fully in a Note under the declension of simple substitutes. 



{jVames.'] etymology. 79 

serters borrowed and left, and with them their respective attend- 
ant words — thus, 



r borrowed my books, 
Julia J § 

l^left Henry's. 



By this connection, the two asserters are more easily seen to have 
a common relation to the name Julia, as one word, denoting the per- 
son, as one subject of the two remarks — Julia borrowed — Julia 
left— 

borrowed 
Julia <( I 

left. 

Henry's is a name, particular, masculine, of the third person, 
in the singular /orw, denoting but one as the possessor, (though 
from its representing also the books, as the things possessed, it is 
plural in sense in this respect,) in the two-fold case, denoting both 
the possessor, and the objects left, as the things possessed — being 
here seen to represent the relations of the possessive case, from 
its denoting the possessor, and the objective case from its repre- 
senting the books as the things possessed, and as the objects that 
Julia left. Thus, supposing my name to be Henry, I say, con- 
cerning myself and books, 

Julia borrowed John's books and left f Henrfs-Hemfs books. 

I mine — Henry s books. 



f Henry's, m^mnelf;^^;^ 
[»!»««, meaning {^^^^'^ 



Julia borrowed John's books and left 



From this, it is seen that my name being Henry, the word mine 
is a substitute for, and representative of, both the name Henry, 
and the name books : 

Julia borrowed John's books and left mine, } , , /, 

and that the name Henri/s, in Italic, in the diagram immediately 
preceding the last, is the full representative of both the man, as 
the possessor, and the books, as the thmgs possessed. 

7 



TA ETYMOLOGY. (JVames.) 

Julia borrowed John's books and left Henry^s, < , ^^^ ^ 

The word Henry''s, as used before the brace, represents just as 
much as the two words, Henry's books^ after the. brace. [" Julia 
borrowed John's books, and left Henry's books," is not good 
English ; but " Julia borrowed John's books, and left Henry^s/^ 
is perfect English.] 

The name Henry'^s^ of itself, or unassociated with other words, 
would represent only the possessor ; but from its place in the sen- 
tence, and its reference to the name books, it is a representative 
of the things, the books, by acting as a kind of substitute for the 
name books ; while it retains, fully, its office as the name of the 
man possessing the books. It is fully in the possessive C2ise, from 
its denoting the possessor of the books, and fully in the objective 
case, from its representing the things possessed as the objects that 
Julia lett. It is as fully in both cases, as it is in either. 

LESSON IX. 

Thou shalt not oppress thy hire I servant. Thou shalt g:ive his hire to him. 
The fathers shall not be put to death for their children. The children shall 
not be put to death for their fathers. Thou shalt not pei vert the judgment 
of the stranger or the fatherless. 

LESSON X. 

Thou shalt not take the widow's raiment as a pledge. Thou shalt not 
harden thy heart or shut thy hand ajjainst thy poor brother. Thou, Lord, 
hast searched me and known me. Thou hast beset rne before and behind ; 
and laid thy hand upon me. Though I should ascend into heaven ; thou 
art there. 

LESSON XL 

Though I should descend into the grave, lo ! thou firt there. Though I 
should take the wing;s of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of 
the earth; even there thy hand wouhl hold me; and thy right hand would lead 
me. Though I should say. Surely the darkness shall cover me ; even the 
night would be light about me. Tiie darkness hideth not from thee. The 
darkness and the light are alike to thee. 

LESSON XIL 
A false balance is an abomination to the Lord. Pride goeth before de- 
struction. The thouglits of the righteous are right; but ihe counsels of the 
wicked are deceit. A soft answer turnefh away wrath ; but harsh words 
excite anger. Righteousness exalteth a nation ; but sin is a reproach to a- 
ny people. The rich and the poor come together. The Lord is the Maker 
of them all. A wise man feareth, and departeth from evil ; but the fool 
rageth and isconfident, [in his danger.] The hoary head is a crown of glory 
if it is found in the way of righteousness.— jBiJ/c. 



{Substitutes.) etymology. 75 



SUBSTITUTES— PRONOUNS. 

139 A substitute is a word substituted for a name, phrase 
or sentence, and sustaining to other words tlie same rela- 
tions that are sustained by a name ; as, 

John was my eaem y, but he is my friend, /relieved him in his distress, 
whichexcited his gratitude and affection. Maria loves htr book. 

140 DISTINCTIONS OF SUBSTITUTES. 

f Simple, 
I Connective, 

I. Primary Distinctions, - - J Interrogative, 

I Negative, 
l_ Indefinite. 

r Masculine, 

II. Distinctions with respect to Sex, J Feminine, 

^ Common, 

[ Neuter. 

. . C First Person, 

III. Distinctions of Person, - ■? Second Person, 

^Tiiird Person. 

IV. Distinctions with respect to Number, f |'"8-"lar form. 

^ » i Plural form. 

f Subjective, 
I Possessive, 

V. Distinctions of Case, - _ .{ Objective, 

J Independent, 
[Two-fold. 

/. Primary Distinctions, 

SIMPLE SUBSTITUTES — Personal Pronouns. 

141 A simple substitute is one which stands merely 
as a substitute for a name, phrase, or sentence, and sustains 
to a sentence the same relations that are sustained by a 
name; as, 

John met ^is father. Maria and Julia reverence Meir parents. George 
paid, for Aw geography, five dollars and a half, "ly^McJa was too much. James 
ran two miles to overtake William : but it was useless. 



7t> ETYMOLOGY. {SuhsUtuteS.). 


142 The Simple Substitutes ^ 
are, 




^143 The Emphatic Simple 

Substitutes, 


I, 

thou, 
he, 
she, 
it, 


p 


myself and ourself, 
thyself and yourself,, 

himself, 

herself, 

itself. 


And their variations with 
respect to Number and Case : 




Caller^ emphatics, from their giv- 
ing emphasis, diUd their variations- 
witii respect to number. 



144 THE DECLENSION OF A SIMPLE SUBSTITUTE 

Is changing its fonn in reference to the distinctions of 
Number and (^ase. 

145 The FORMS are named according to the cases in 
which they should respectively be used.* 

DECLENSION. 

l^The first person is defined by number 93, p 54. Let the pupil repeat 

the definition here.] 

146 FIRST PERSON — CommoTi Substitutes. 



Singular Form. 
Subj. form, I, 
Poss. forms, My — mine,| 
Obj. form, Me, 
Indep. form, Me, 
Two- fold form. Mine. 



Plural Forms. 

Subj. form. We, 
Poss. form, Our, 
Obj. form, Us, 
Indep. form, We, 
Two-fold form. Ours. 



[Qi^'The second person is defined by 94 . Let the pupil repeat the defini- 
tion here] 
147 SECOND PERSON — Commou Substitutes. 

Singular Forms. 
Subj. form, Thou, 
Poss. forms, Thy-thine, 
Obj. form, Thee,jA 
Indep. form. Thou, 
Two-fold form, Thine. 



Plural Forms. 

Subj. forms, You-ye,|| 
Poss. form. Your, 
Obj. forms, You-ye,§ 
Indep. forms, You-ye|| 
Two-fold form. Yours. 



*A simple substitute or a name, when used exclamatorily or interroga- 
tively, without reference to an asserter or a relative, is in the independent 
case, whatever may be the form ; as, 

/doubtful, cheerless 1 /afraid ? 
/, hapless wretch ! a man — a slave ! 
Though offspring of the good and brave I 
^^For Azotes t tA II § see next page. 



{Substitutes.) etymology. 77 

14S. N. B. — In the ordinary conversational style, the word 
you, and its variations, with the plural form of the asserter, should 
be used in preference to the word thoUy and its vaiiations in the 
singular form ; as, 
James ; you are my friend. You have ever been kind to me 4a 

[Od^The third person is defined by 95. Let the pupil repeat the defini- 
tion here.] 

THIRD PERSON. 

149 Masculine Substitutes. Common Substitutes. 

Singular Forms. Plural Forms. 

Subj. form. He, Subj. form, They, 

Poss. form, His, Poss. form. Their, 

Obj. form. Him, Obj. form. Them, 

Indep. form. Him, Indep. form, They, 

Two-fold form. His. Two-fold form. Theirs. *a 



(^ For references f |a || § see preceding page. 

fJJfme, in the simple possessive case, is confined to the grave or •* scrip- 
tural" style. 

|a The second person singular, as it is called, is confined to the grave 
style. 

B You, as a substitute, is said to be in the plural form, because, when 
several objects are meant, you must be used, although it may be used in 
reference to a single object. Besides, it is regarded as plural in sense, ex- 
cept when the words, with which it is connected, show the sense to be sin- 
gular. Then, as thou is used only m the singular sense, it is said to be in 
the singular form; and you is said to be in the plural form ,becsiuse it must 
be used to represent several objects ; although it may be used in application 
to a single object, if the singleness is sufficiently shown by other means. 

II Ye, as a swJjective word, or word in the independent case, is confined 
to the grave style. 

§Fe, as an objective word, is confined to the comic style. 



*a Common names and substitutes are terms, which, without any change, 
may be applied to objects either male or female ; as, friend. This term 
may be ap[)lied to a lady or a gentleman. I may say Mr. Clinton is my 
friend, or Mrs. Clinton is my friend. He is my friend, or she is my 
friend. While common names and substitutes are properly applied to both 
males and females, they are incapable of distinguishing either ; as by the 
name friend, I can not indicate whether a male or a female is meant. 

b Remember that a common name is not one which denotes a property 
or thing which is common to both sexes, or which may belong to either 
sex ; as, ti^loves, which may be owned by persons of both sexes — as ladies 
and gentlemen both wear gloves : but a common name is one which de- 

7* 



7$ ETYMOLOGY. { SubsHtutes .) 

150 THIRD PERSON. 

Feminine Substitutes. Common Substitutes. 

Singular Forms. Plural Forms. 

Subj. form, She, Subj. form, They, 

Poss. form. Her, Poss. form, Their, 

Obj. form, Her, Obj. form. Them, 

Indep. form, She, Inclep. form. They, 

Two-fold form. Hers. Two-fold form. Theirs. 

notes an object th tt is, itself, either a male or a female, though the name 
can not distinguish either. 

c While a common name denotes something v/hichmust Je either a ma/e, 
or a female, it can not distinguish whether one or the other is meant. — 
Thus, I say, •' I met d, parent leading a child,'^ — jet no one can tell from 
the expression, whether I met a male or a female — whether it was a /a- 
ther or a mother that I met — though, as a parent, the person must have 
been one or the other : and from the word child, no one can tell whether it 
was a male, or a female, that the parent was leading, whether it was a son 
or a daughter — though, as a child it must have been one or the other — the 
name child being incapable of distinguishing which. 

d Let the pupil remember, then, that a common name is one which, from 
its own meaning, strictly applied, means an object that must be either a male 
or a female — yet a common name can never of itself distinguish a male or a 
female object, as male or female. 

e Let the pupil remember, that a common substitute is one which may 
be applied to represent either a male or a female without distinguishing one 
or the other ; as, /, thou, they, them — and that a simple substitute of the 
third person and plural form may be applied to represent objects inale or 
female, or neutral, shown by the names for which these substitutes may 
stand, to be one or the other, or objects of both descriptions ; as, men, they 
— women, they — apples, they, &c. 

f Let it be remembered that all substitutes are common, except certain 
of the simple substitutes as distinguished in examples 149, 150, and 151, 
of the declensions ; and except such adname substitutes as when used in 
only the adname sense would be capable of marking the distinctions ; as, the 
male bird flew away, but the female remained to guard her young. We 
caught the /emale bird ; but could not secure the male. 

g The neuter substitute it, stands for a collective name when the name 
is used to denote the mass or collection, itself, not the individuals compos- 
ing the collection ; thus we say of a school, it was large ; of a congrega- 
tion, it is large and respectable ; of a family it is small. 

h By the foregoing, it is seen that a collective name, as a collective 
name, is necessarily to be regarded as neuter ; although the objects compos- 
ing the collection, may be 7na/e or /^maZf, or of both descriptions; aSy 
speaking of a tea-party or other party of pleasure, I say, z7, (the party,) 
was very large — though perhaps there was not a large person in it. 

i When, by the collective name, we refer to the individuals composing 
the collection, rather than to the whole ?nass, as amass, we use the plural 



(Substitutes.) etymology. 7ft 

151 THIRD PERSON. 

Neuter Substitutes. Common Substitutes. 

Singular Forms. Plural Forms. 

Subj. form, It, Subj. form, They, 

Poss. form. Its, Poss. form, Their, 

Obj. form, It, - Obj. form. Them, 

Indep. form, — ,* Indep. form. They, 

Two-fold form, Its own. I Two-fold form. Theirs. J 

EMPHATIC SIMPLE SUBSTITUTES 

152 I. Are declined only to distinguish objests with re- 
spect to NUMBER. 

II. They are not varied on account of case ; and are 
never used in the possessive case. 

DECLENSION. 

153 THIRD PERSON — Commofi Substitutes. 
Singular Forms. Plural Form. 

^^ ,c\ Ourselves. 

Ourselt.*a 

154 SECOND PERSON — CommoTi Substitutes. 
Singular Forms. Plural Form. 

^r ^ I'r Yourselves, 

lourselt. 

Jor7n of the substitute, which is the same when meaning neutral things, as 
when meaning male or female objects. 

[See this mentioned in parsing the word family on page 72, and as 
treated more extensively in Syntax ^ under the Rules concerning collec- 
tive names. '\ 

* The singular form of it, the author has never known to be used in the 
independent case. The use of thyself is confined to the grave style. 

]Its oivn, as a substitute combination, is the only place in which ity as 
a substitute, is used in the two-fold case. 

%Theirs, ours, and yours, are said to be in the plural form, because re- 
spectively denoting plurality of pos^jessors ; and mine, thine, his, and hers, 
respectively, are said to be in the singular form because denoting single 
po&sessors : yet the former may be singular, and the latter j9/M?a/, in sense, 
so far as the things possessed are concerned : thus, Julia's books were taken 
and mine vjere left. Speaking of Henry and James, and their umbrella, I 
say, my umbrella was taken but theirs was left. The same may be said of 
names in the two-fold case. [See Rules of Syntax concerning the twO' 
fold case."] 

*a This form of the substitute is used by editors, rulers, and others who 
act in concert with persons associated with them ; they, (the former,) ap- 



80 ETYMOLOGY. (Substitutes.) 

155 THIRD PERSON. 

Masculine Substitute. Common Substitute. 

Singular Form. Plural Form. 

Himself, Themselves. 

Feminine Substitute. 
Singular Form. 
Herself, Themselves. 

Neuter Substitute. 
Singular Form. 
Itself, Themselves. 



pearing, respectively, as the representatives of the associations with which 
they are connected — the word our, indicating the idea of plurality, or of 
the association, and the word self, indicating the idea of unity in the per- 
son in whose name, and by whom, ostensibly, the affairs are conducted — 
and the two words our and self, thus united — oMrse/f— indicating, appro- 
priately, the idea of plurality in deliberation, and of unity in responsibiU 
ify, or action. 

b The rules of Grammar have long held back speakers and writers from 
using the word their, in the individual sense with a plural reference ; as, 
Every man and woman should act in their proper sphere of life — instead of, 
in his and her proper sphere, &c. [This, (the latter,) is a very awkward 
mode of expression, not to be compared with the other] The public have 
long felt the inconvenience of this seeming, perhaps real, defect, in the lan- 
guage, and would have remedied the evil long ago, had not narrow minded 
authors and critics, like closet generals, kept the public from adopting the 
proper remedy. The author of this work is willing to meet the storm which 
over-cautious critics may raise in reference to this departure from their 5/e- 
reotypedx\x\esiov!i living, growing language . [This storm, at most, is 
but the •' tempest in a tea-pot.^'} Necessity, in language, as in other mat- 
ters, is the supreme law ; and public convenience in the transmission of 
thought, should be the great object to be subserved by the labors of an au- 
thor of Grammar. Other writers on Grammar have lamented what they 
deem a defect in the language, but none of them have attempted a 
remedy. Let critics rail against this open encouragement of a needful de- 
parture from old rules. The author of this work will treat their efforts with 
due forbearance, while he sanctions, without hesitation, what the necessity 
of the language so obviously requires. 

c When there is reference to both males and females, yetto each, individ- 
ually, the plural form of the substitute, as, their, &c. should he used; as, 
" No teacher, male or female, shall dismiss their school before the hour of 
five." " Every father and mother should attend closely to the education of 
their own children, without neglecting the children of their neighbors." — 
" Each man and woman should, as far as possible, provide for their own 
wants without taking- such measures as will prevent their neighbors* doing 
the same." 



{Substitutes.) eytmology. 81 

CONNECTIVE SUBSTITUTES — Relative Pronouns. 
156 A connective substitute is one which acts the parts 
of a CONNECTIVE and a substitute ; as, 

James bought the apples which Henry ate. George is the person whom 
I met. Julia is the scholar that makes the greatest proficiency *a 

*a Contrast of Simple and Connective Substitutes. 

In speaking of a certain orange which has been the subject of conversa- 
tion, I say, 

1 James bought the orange. The orange was eaten by John 
— two simple sentences. 

2 James bought the orange. It was eaten by John — two sim- 
ple sentences ; and the word it, a mere substitute for the name orange. 

3 James bought the orange and it was eaten by John — two 
sentences united by and — the word it, being a mere suhstitnte for the name 
orange, and the word and, a mere connective, uniting what would other- 
wise stand as two distmct, simple sentences. I repeat, 

h 1 James bought the orange C and it ^ was eaten by John. 

2 James bought the orange ( which ) was eaten by John. 

Here it is seen that while the word and acts the part of a mere con- 
nective, and the word it, the part of a substitute for the name orange, the 
Word which, in the line below, stands under, and m {he place of, these two 
words, and and zY— being, like and, a full connective^ and, like it, a full 
»ubstitute for the name orange. Thus, 

c 1 James bought the orange C awe? the orange ") was eaten by John. 
2 James bought the orange ( which ) was eaten by John. 

OTHER EXAMPLES : 

d 1 I met a man. He was going west — two sentences ; and 
HE, a simple substitute. 

2 I met a man who was going west — the two sentences uni- 
ted by WHO, a connective substitute. 

e 1 James is the man. I met him yesterday — two sentences : 
and HIM, a simple substitute. 

2 James is the man whoiu I met yesterday — the two sentences 
united by whom, a co7inective substitute. 

f 1 This is the man. He spoke to me yesterday — two senten- 
ces ; and he, a simple substitute. 

2 This is the man that spoke to me yesterday — the two sen-- 
tences united by that, a connective substitute. 



/ 



82 ETYMOLOGY. {Substitutes.) 

157 Words in the two-fold case always sustain the same rela- 
tions, that would be sustained by the words whose places they so 
elegantly supply ; as, 

John bought apples. Apples were eaten. John bought what were ent- 
en.*a 

g 1 The tree is dead. It was cursed by thee — two sentences ; 
nnd IT, a simple substitute. 

2 The tree is dead that was cursed by thee — the two senten- 
ces united by that, a connective substitute; or, better, thus, 

h 1 The tree is dead. It was cursed by thee. 

2 The tree, that was cursed by thee, is dead ; or, the tree that 
thou cursedst is dead — that^ in both examples, a connective sub- 
stitute. 

i 1 James bought apples. I ate apples — two simple sentences. 

2 James bought apples. I ate them — two simple sentences ; 
themy being a mere substitute for the name apples. 

3 James bought apples and I ate them. 

■Here it is seen that the word and, is a mere connective — merely uniting 
the two sentences " James bought apples," and *• late them.'* The word 
word them, (in number 3,) is seen to be a mere substitute for the namea^- 
ples. The word and, has no substitute office. It merely connects ; and is 
therefore called a simple connective. The word them, has no connective 
influence, or office, but acts merely as a substitute for the name apples, and 
is therefore called a simple substitute. 

connective. substitute, 

j 1 James bought apples aiid I ate them, 

con. substitute. 

2 James bought the apples which I ate. 

Here the word which, is seen to be just as much a connective as the word 
and; and just as much a substitute as the word ^^em— standing, like this 
word, in the place of the name apples. It occurs, like and, between the 
parts of the sentence — between the two simple sentences, that it may co?!- 
nect them. The word ivhich is in the objective case from its relation to the 
asserter ate, representing what I ate, just like the word them, in the line a- 
bove it — and just as the name apples would have been, had the name been 
repeated— though the name, not having a connective office, would have oc- 
curred after the asserter, instead of occurring before it, like which. 

*a The design of the following diagram is to develope the relations of the 
word what, not to express exactly the same ideas that the names, as used 
in the first two lines, express ; for the names, as used, would not show that 



{Substitutes.) etymology. 8» 

THE DECLENSION 

158 I. Of connective substitutes is changing their form 
for the representation of Case. 

II. They do not admit the distinctions with respect to 
Sex, Person, and Number. 

[See the Contrast of all kinds of Substitutes. 

the apples eaten were the ones bought by James ; while the word what 
shows that the apples bought by James were the ones mentioned as eaten. 

b 1 James bought apples. Apples were eaten. 

2 James bought -^ C apples, and apples ) ^^ werc eaten. 

3 James bought ^ (what) (jifp were eaten. 

Here it is seen that the word what is substituted for both names, apples 

> — apples, and that it connects just as much as the word and, above it 

Like the first word apples, for which it stands, the word what is in the ob- 
jective case, from its relation to the transitive asserter bought, to which it 
refers ; and like the second name apples for which, also, it stands, the word 
what is in the swftjective case from its relation to the receptive asserter 
were eaten— the same word, ivhat, being used to represent the same fruit 
as both bought and eaten. Thus, 



James bought -=^ what {jr^ were eaten. 



c Connective Substitutes may be used in the two-fold Stti^ec- 
tive case ; as, 

purifies — the heart, 

- Whoever \ ^^'" ^^o— the work, 

o ( shall have — the pay. 

fortifies — it. 
d They may be used in the two-fold objective case ; as, 



Whatever 



I will take ( S ^ I like ( J I will buy 



f g ^ I like J « I will buy ( ..:* j, 

^ ^ I you dislike. ( § you prefer. < ;§ | 



you shall choose . ^ v^ . - .- . . . -^ 

€ They may be used in the two-fold case, representing the objective and 
Juftjective ; as, speaking of apples, I say. 



I took '^^what^^ were needed. 



2 Our ignorance of^^what^^ may happen should banish disquiet. 



/ 



S4 



ETYMOLOGY. 



(Substitutes.) 



359 DECLENSION OF CONNECTIVE SUBSTITUTES. 



Subjective form. 

Who 

Whoever 

Whosoever 

Which 

Whichever 

Whichsoever 

What 

Whatever 

Whatsoever 

That 



Possessive form. 

Whose 

Whosever 

Whosesoever 

Whose 

Whosever 

Whosesoever 

Whose 

Whosever 

Whosesoever 

Whose 



Objective form. 

Whom 

Whomever 

Whomsoever 

Which 

Whichever 

V^'hichsoever 

What 

Whatever 

Whatsoever 

That 



/ They may be used in a triple co-incidence of case, being in the two- 
fold case representing the possessive, and, besides, a two-fold relation or 
case ; as, I shall take William's carriage, and 

J You may take 

you prefer. 

The above represents the possessive and two -fold objective case. 



1 You may take ^^whosesoeveri^ will suit you best. 



The above represents the possessive case, and the two-fold — the two- 
fold including the objective and *w6jective. 

g " WJioever will do the work shall have the pay.'" In this example, 
the whole phrase " tvhoevei' will do the work," is in the subjective case be- 
fore the asserter shall have — for if the question should be asked, "who shall 
have the pay ?" the ansv^'er would be, ^* whoever will do the loork,'" Yet 
as the word whoever, brings to the mind of the hearer or reader, the idea of 
the self-same person that will do the work, and shall have the pay — the 
word whoever is said to be in the two-fold case ; having the two asserters 
will do, and shall have, depending on it to denote the one subject of the 
two remarks. This prmciple is applied, also, to such words used in the 
two-fold objective case, as in some of the foregoing examples. 

h 1. ^To determine which substitute, in a sentence describing two 
facts, is connective, express the facts by separate sentences, repeating such 
words as will make each sentence a perfect one — an independent one, and 
see which word is missing. Thus, 

2. " John, who was sick, is now well." John was sick. John is now 
well. Here it is perceived that the substitute who is missing. You may 
know, then, that who is the connective substitute. 

3. ♦« The tree that thou cursedst, is dead;" The tree is dead. Thotj 
cursedst the tree. Here it is perceived that the substitute that is excluded 



{Substitutes.) etymology. SB- 

INTERROGATIVE SUBSTITUTES — Intenogative Pronouns. 

160 All interrogative substitute is one which acts the 
parts of an interrogative and a substitute ; as, 

Who can show us any good ? James : lohat wUl influence you to study? 
Which of you, gentlemen, is my friend ''.*a 

161 WhOf whose, which, and what, are the only words used as 
interrogative substitutes. 

— is missing. Therefore, you know the word that to be the connective sub- 
stitute. 

i " James ate the apple which I had given to him." Here it is perceiv- 
ed that two facts are described. Let us express them by separate indepen- 
dent sentences, repeating whatever words are necessary. Thus, James ate 
the apple. I had given the apple to him. The substitute which, is mis- 
sing. The word which, is hereby seen to be a connective substitute. 

j " Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 

Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door." 
Express these two facts by two sentences, distinct and independent — thus, 
Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 

The old man's trembling limbs have borne him to your door. 
Here it is seen that the word whose, a substitute, is the word missing. — 
Whose is herein seen to be the connective substitute. 

k Whose, the possessive form of icho, as a connective substitute, is used 
in the two-fold case, representing the possessive and the subjective, or the 
objective ; as, having mentioned boats, sailing, &c. I say, I told George 
whose [whose boat] would suit him best — [possessive, and subjective case] 
— or, I told George whose [whose boat] he should take — {possessive, and 
objective case.] In all such sentences the word whose, has, with the pos- 
sessive, just the same case, that the name, if repeated, would have. 

I Dd^Remember that a connective substitute, immediately preceded by 
than, and followed by an adname or a modifier, expressing comparison, is 
always either in the possessive case, (and that case is easily distinguished,) 
or in the objective, depending on than, as a relative : but that, (0^m all 
other circumstances, a connective substitute is in the sameo€ise as the name 
or simple substitute for which it stands, would be, if used in the same 
place ; as in the foregoing examples. ^^Cf-Bo not forget this. 

*a Contrast of Interrogative with Simple Substitutes. 

1 Man is happy — an affirmalive sentence. 

2 He is happy — an affirmative sentence. 

3 Wonnan is happy — an affirmative sentence. 

4 She is happy — an affirmative sentence. 

5 Who is happy — an interrogative sentence, made interrog-. 
ative only by the word 7vho, which brings to mind the idea of a person re- 
ferred to ; the rest of the sentence being exactly like the other parts of the 

8 



86 ETYMOLOGY. {Substitutes .y 

162 THE DECLENSION 

I. Of interrogative substitutes is only changing their form 
in reference to Case. 

II. They do not admit distinctions with respect to Sex, 
Person, and Number. 

163 DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE SUBSTITUTES. 

Subjective form. Possessive form- Objective form. 

Who Whose* Whom 

Which Whose Which 

What Whose What 

164 ADNAME SUBSTITUTES — Adjcctwe Prououus. 

I. An adname substitute is one, which, of itself, expres- 
ses the sense of an adname, and yet has the sense and place 

of a SUBSTITUTE. 

II. It is an ADNAME that becomes a substitute by the 

sentences connected with the words, Man, He, Woman, and She. The 
words, IS happy, stand in the same relation to the word who, as the four 
words above who: yet, while the first four sentences are q^rwa^iye, the one 
of which who is a part, is an interrogative sentence. This shows that the 
word ivho, as used, is interrogative, and contains the only interrogative 
principle in the sentence. 

b The word loho, as used above, is substituted for the name person, in 
expressing the idea of a human being. It is therefore a substitute. The 
word who, makes interrogative, a sentence, which with the name person 
or a simple substitute would be affir7native. It is therefore as much an in- 
terrogative as the word why, or any other simple interrogative. The word 
who is herein seen to be both an interrogative and asubstitute, an interrcg- 
ative substitute — thus, man is happy. He is happy. Who is happy 7 

*The possessive form, whose, is often used in the two-fold case, and should 
be so used wherever it can clearly include, in its meaning, the possessor 
and the thing possessed ; as, 

George : I shall take William's sail boat. Whose will you take ? This, 
word ivhose means just as much as the two words, whose and boat would 
have meant — thus. 

Whose boat # 

George : I shall take William's sail boat. ^ \ will you 

whose } 

take — this word, 10^056, being in the possessive /<?77n, and two-fold case, 
representing the possessive case, and the oZ'jective ; as, I prefer William's 
boat. Whose will suit you ? — the word whose being in the possessive case, 
and in the subjective before the asserter will suit. 



I 



{Substitutes.) etymology. 87 

proper omission of the name of the thing", to which, as an 
adname, it would refer ; as, 

Henry lent that book, but kept this. George bought ten apples and sold 
Jive of them.*« 

165 The combinations of adname substitutes, each other, and 
one another, are called reciprocal substitutes, from their denoting 
reciprocation ; as, 

John and Henry respect each other. They use one another'' s books. 

166 These adname-substitute combinations may be used in ei- 
ther of the simple cases except the subjective ; as, 

John and Henry respect each other. [The combination in the objective 
case.] They use ond another'' s books. [The combination in the possessive 
case .] 

167 Each may be used in the subjective case, and with a re- 
ciprocal influence in reference to the word other, in the possessive, 

*a George bought J?ye apples. Here the word fi-oe, is added to the name 
apples, only to show the number of the apples. John bought ten apples 
and sold five of them. Here the word five, shows the number just as much 
as before, when it did nothing else ; and is thereby seen to express the sense 
oi ^lXx adname : and, at the same time, it is used as a substitute for the 
name apples to represent the fruit, and to prevent the repetition of the name 
apples ; and is thereby found to be a substitute in sense and place — thus, 

f five appjes ^ 

John bought ten apples and sold < J^ ^'^ > of them. 

Here the word five, as used in the lower line of the diagram, is seen to 
mean just as much as the two words, five apples, in the upper line. The 
word five, in the tipper line, is a mere adname, in place and sense; being 
added to the name only to show the number of the apples. The word ap- 
ples, in the upper hne, is a mere name of the fruit referred to, without be- 
ing used for any other purpose ; but the word ^ye, in the lower line, has 
the full sense, without the place, of an adname — [it shows the number, 
though it is not added to the name,'\ and, at the same time it has both the 
sense and place of a substitute, as it is suhstiiuted for the name apples, to 
prevent the repetition of that name. " John bought ten apples, and sold 
five of them." The word five is an adname in sense — and a substitute in 
sense and place — an adname substitute. 

b Any adname, which, while it retains its meaning as an adname, is, at 
the same time used as a substitute for a name, becomes an adname substi. 
tute, by being so used ; but OCf=when the ncmie is used, and the adname be- 
longs to the name, instead of standing for it, it is a mere adname, having 
no substitute office. 

c Ocf^AU the adnames in the language, except a, an, the, every, very, no, 
and said, may become adname substitutes by being used instead of names, 
to prevent repeating the names ; as, " The ivise foresee the evils of life, 
but the foolish pass on and are punished.'* " The careless and the incon- 
fitaut, the giddy and the fickle, the ungrateful and the iiiterested, ey&:y 
where meet us." 



88 ETYMOLOGY. {SubstittUes.y 

or objective case. The same may be said of one, in reference to 
the word othery with the adname the, before it ; as, 
Each loves the other. One used the other's books.* 

168 THE DECLENSION OF ADNAME SUBSTITUTES 

Is changing their shape to make the possessive form, and 
to represent objects with respect to Number.f 

EXAMPLES. J 

Singular Form. Plural Form. 

Subj. form, One, Subj. form, Ones, 

Poss. form, One's [books] Poss. form. Ones' [books] 

Obj, form, One, Obj. form. Ones. 

Subj. form, Other, Subj. form. Others, 

Poss. form, Other's [books] Poss. form. Others' [books] 

Obj. form. Other, Obj. form, Others. 

Subj. form. Another, ^ 

Poss. form. Another's [books] V The plural form is wanting. 

Obj. form. Another. ) 

NEGATIVE SUBSTITUTE. 

169 A negative substitute is one which has the relations 

*In such circumstances, their reciprocal bearing may be mentioned, and 
the words parsed in other respects as other adname substitutes. 

t A Few adname substitutes admit distinctions with respect to Sex, Per- 
son, and Number. 

B Distinctions with respect to Sex^ are marked only by those, which, as 
mere adnames, are capable of distinguishing the objects to which they re- 
fer, as male or female ; as, We caught the female bird, but could not se- 
cure the 7nale: or, We caught the male bird, but could not secure the fe- 
male. All other adname substitutes are common, though they may be ap- 
plied to male and to female objects. 

c Certain adname substitutes are capable, of themselves, of distinguish- 
ing objects with respect to number. Those only, can do this, that can do it 
when used as mere adnames ; as, James took that umbrella, and left this; 
or. He took this umbrella, and left that. Most of the other adname substi- 
tutes are in the singular form, though used in the phiral or singular sense ; 
as, *' I have seen the wicked in great power, and spreading himself like a 
green bay tree." ^^The wicked are overthrown and are not, but the house 
of the righteous shall stand." Generally, these substitutes are used in the 
plural sense, except when there is a particular reference to a single object. 

itAdname substitutes, when used in the independent case, have the sam? 
form as when used in the subjective case. 



^^Substitutes,) ETYMOLOGY. W 

of a simple substitute, and at the same time exerts a nega- 
tive influence on the meaning of the sentence ; as, 
All the men examined the manuscript, but none could read it.*a 

INDEFINITE SUBSTITUTES. 

170 An indefinite substitute is one which has the rela- 
tions of a simple substitute, yet is used in an indefinite 
sense; as, 

What thou hast been, it matters not; for see ! 
Thy chains are loosed, and I behold thee free.f 

*-a From the foregoing example, it is seen that the name men, or a sim- 
ple substitute, placed before the asserter could read, would make the sense 
affirmative — Thus, 

All the men examined the manuscript. 

The men could read it — an affirmatiDe sentence. 

They could read it — an affirmative sentence. 

None could read it — a negative sentence. 
No man could read it — a negative sentence. 

Thus, while either the name men, or the simple substitute they, as used 
with the asserter could read, makes an affirmative sentence, the substitute 
none, ased in the same relation to the same asserter, makes a negative sen- 
tence. 

b The word none, formerly no one, has the sense of a name from its ref- 
erence to the name for which it is substituted ; and, at the same time, it 
has the sense of the negative adname no ; as, J\'o man could read it — none 
could read it. Yet, as the word none is never to be used as a mere atZname, 
it is not, as used above, an adname substitute — for an adname substitute is 
•a word of the adname class, which happens to be used as a substitute for 
the very name to which it would, as an adname, have belonged. 

c The word none is the only negative substitute, (classed as such,) in the 
language : though the word neither, of the specifying adname class, and 
negative in its meaning, is frequently used as an acZn awe substitute, and re- 
tains, as an adname substitute, its negative meaning ; as, Two men ap- 

C neither man 'X 

preached the door — both tried to open it ; but < • . , • > of them 

succeeded — the word neither, expressing, of itself, the sense of a mere ad' 
name, yet having the sense, and place, and relation of a substitute. 

fThe indefinite substitute is used, chiefly, in titles of essays, chapters, &c, 
as, " What parsing is." " Whai are our relations to God.'* " What hu- 
man life is." 

ft* - 



90 ETYMOLOGir. {SuhsHtittes.) 



Contrast of all kinds of Substitutes, 

171 The simple substitute is here used as the standard by which 
to distinguish the other kinds ; as this, of all the substitutes, is 
the best representative of the name ; having all the characteristics 
of the name for distinctions W\\.\\ respect to Sex, Person, Number, 
and Case. 

a Simple^ and Connective Substitutes. 

1 James bought the orange. The orange was eaten by John. 

2 James bought the orange. It was eaten by John — z7, a sim- 
ple substitute. 

3 James bought the orange ( and it > was eaten by John : 

4 James bought the orange \ which ) was eaten by J o h n — 
and^ a connective, and it^ a substitute : which ^ a connective substitute. 

h Simple, and Interrogative Substitutes. 

Man is happy — an affirmative sentence, and man, a name. 

He is happy — still an affirmative sentence, and he, a simple 
substitute. 

Who is happy — an interrogative sentence : made so hy whoy 
an interrogative substitute. 

c Simple, and Adname Substitutes. 

A simple substitute is one which stands simply as the representative of an- 
other word, or of other words ; while the adname substitute acts the parts 
of an adname i in sense; and a substitute, in sense and place; as, 

James bought apples and sold them — them, a simple subsiitutCi 
showing no number or quality. 

( five applea ^ 

James bought ten apples, and sold j /. '- > of them : the word 

jive, a full adname, in sense, showing number like a mere adname, and, at 
the same time, a full substitute for the name apples, to prevent the repeti- 
tion of that name. 

d Simple, and the Negative Substitute. 

A simple substitute expresses the same affirmative sense that would be ex- 
pressed by a name, if the name was used in the place where the simple sub- 
stitute stands ; while the negative substitute denies what, by the use of the 
simple substitute, would be affirmed ; as, 



\8ubstitutes.) etymology. 91 

All of the men examined the manuscript. 

The men could read it — an affirmative sentence, and men, a 
mere name. 

They could read it — still an affirmative sentence, and they, 
a simple substitute. 

iVb?ie\ouid read it — now, a negative sentence ; made so by 
none, a negative substitute ; the other words of the sentence being now the 
same as before, when the sentence was affirmative. 

c Simple, and the Indefinite Substitute. 

The simple substitute is always definite in reference to an object, or kind, 
or class of objects, or a fact brought to mind ; while the indefinite substitute 
seems to have an almost utter want of similarity to the simple substitute, 
bemg nothing more than a general index to, or representative of, the charac- 
ter of what is mentioned, or what is to follow ; as, 

<* What is my duty to my neighbor." *' PFAa^ Heaven requires of man, 
as a social being," &c. &c. 

/ What are the Traits of Similarity and of Dissimilarity among 

Substitutes.^ 

Simple Substitutes have the greatest resemblance to names ; having all 
their traits of distinction with respect to Sex, Person, Number, and Case, 
and have one person, (the first,) more than names have. 

g Connective Substitutes have the connective influence, denied to simple 
substitutes, and have Case, but they lack modifications with respect to Sea;^ 
Person, and JVumber, which pertain to simple substitutes. 

h Interrogative Substitutes have the interrogative influence, denied to 
simple substitutes, and have Case, but they, like connective substitutes, lack 
the modifications with respect to Sex, Person, and JVumber, which pertain 
to simple substitutes. 

i Adname Substitutes have the adname influence, denied to simple sub- 
stitutes, and have some of the modifications with respect to Sea-, Person, 
JVumber, and Case, yet they lack the first person, which pertains tosimple 
substitutes, and are, most of them, in the same form, whether meaning one 
or many, males or females. [See notes/, p 78, fA, b, c,p 88.] 

j The Negative Substitutenone, has the negative influence, denied to sim- 
ple substitutes : it has no modification with respect to Sex or Number ; is 
always of the third person, and is never used in the possessive case. It 
may be used in the singular or plural sense. 

k The indefinite substitute has the indefinite character, denied to simple 
substitutes : like the negative substitute, it has no modifications with re- 
spect to Sex and JVumber, and is always of the third person. It may be us- 
ed in the singular or plural sense. 

*The word what, as purposely used in this caption or head, is an indefi- 
nite substitute. It is not intended as an interrogative substitute. 



02 ETYMOLOGY. {Substitutes.) 

A SUBSTITUTE PHRASE 

172 Is a combination of words expressing some fact, and 
sustaining-, to the other parts of a sentence, the relation of 
a name or substitute; as, 

*'To maintain a steady and unbroken mind amidst all the shocks of the 
worlds marlcs a great and noble spirit."* 



Questions on Substitutes. 

1. What is a substitute? see 139. Give examples. What is a simple sub- 
stitute ? 141 . What words are simple substitutes ? 142, 143. Why are those 
in 143 called emphatics 7 What is the declension of a simple substitute 1 
144. What is said of the/orms of substitutes in 145 1 WTiat is taught hj 
note * ? Give the examples in declension, 146 : in 147. What is taught 
by 148 1 by note Ja ? Why is the form you called the plural form .' 
Why is the form thou called the singular formi ? Note b. 

2. Give examples in declension in 149 — in 150 — in 151. What is said in 
*a ? in & ? in c ? in <i ? in e ? in/? in g ? in h ? in i ? What is taught by 
note *2 by t ? by J 1 For what purpose are emphatic simple substitutes 
declined 1 152, I. On what account are they not varied ? 152, II. Give 
the examples in declension, 153 — 154. What is taught by *a ? by 6 ? by 
c? Give the examples in declension in 155. What is a connective substi- 
tute ? 156. What is taught by 157 ? by *a ? b? c? d? e? f? g?h ? De- 
scribe what is given in *a — in b — in c — in d — in e—f? g 7 h? i? j ? k? I? 
What is the declension of connective substitutes ? 153, I. What do they 
not admit ? 158, II. Decline the connective substitutes, 159. 

3. What is an interrogative substitute ? 160. Which words are used as 
interrogative substitutes ? 161. Describe what is taught by *a. What is 
said in b7 What is the declension of interrogative substitutes ? 162, 
I. What distinctions do they not admit ? 162, II. Give the examples in 
declension 163. What is taught by note * ? What is an adname substi- 
tute 1 164, I. What is said in 164, II I What is taught by *a ? hy b 7 by 
c ? What is said of the combinations each other, and one another 7 165. 
In which cases may they be used ? 166. What is said of each, 1671 What 
is said in*? What is the declension of adname substitutes? 168. Give 
the examples in 168. What is taught by fA ? by b .' by c ? What is said 
in J? What is a negative substitute ? 169. Explain what is given in *a ? 
inZ>? in c ? What is an indefinite substitute? 170. For what purpose 
is it generally used ? f. 

4. In the contrast of substitutes, in what character is the simple substi- 
tute used ? and why 1 171. In what respect are the simple, and connec- 
tive substitutes similar ? In what unlike ? a. In what respects are sim- 
ple, and interrogative substitutes alike ? In what unlike ? b. What is the 
difference between simple and adname substitutes ? c. What is the differ- 
ence between simple substitutes, and the negative ? d. What is said of the 
simple substitutes, and the indefinite ? e. What is said of the traits of sub- 
stitutes, in e 7 in/? in g 7 in h ? in i? inj7 in k? What is a substi- 
tute phrase? 172. 

*The whole phrase, in Italic, is in the subjective case before marks. 



{Substitutes.) etymology. 9$ 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



[The following exercises are intended for illustrating, particularly, the sec- 
ond part of speech, the substitute, in its own peculiar traits, and its con- 
nection with the other parts of speech. The others are used for the construc- 
tion of the sentences in which substitutes occur ; and will, themselves, 
be particularly described in their appropriate places. The rules of Syn- 
tax need not be applied till the pupil shall have become acquainted with 
the principles on which those rules are based. 

LESSON XIII. 

1 John met his father. 2 Maria and Julia reverence their parents. — 
3 George paid, for his geography, five and a half dollars, which was too 
much. 4 James ran two miles to overtake William ; but it was useless. 

John is a name, particular, masculine, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the subjective case, and has the asserter wie?, 
depending on it to denote the subject of remark. 

Met is an asserter ; transitive, representing the fact of the sub- 
ject of remark, John, as extending to some object, (otherwise 
there could have been no meeting :) it refers to, and depends on, 
the name Johny to denote .the subject of remark. 

His is a substitute ; it is a word substituted for a name : and 
sustaining, to the sentence, the same relations that would be sus- 
tained by a name ; simple, it stands merely as a substitute for the 
name John — [John met Johnh father — John met his father] — 
masculine, it denotes that a male creature is meant ; of the third 
person, denoting, not the one speaking or writing, as such ; but 
some other object spoken of ; in the singular form ; it denotes but 
one — in the possessive case, representing the person denoted by 
it, as having or possessing, and depending, for its place, on the 
name father, showing what he has. 

Father is a rmine, general, masculine, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the objective case, denoting the object of the 
fact expressed by the transitive asserter mety on which it de- 
pends. 

2 Maria and Julia reverence their parents. 

Maria is a name, particular, feminine, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the subjective case, denoting one of the two 
ladies who are the subjects of the remark, and has the asserter rev- 
erence, referring to it conjointly with the name Juliaj and depen- 
ding on both. 

And is a connectives connecting the two nanoes, Maria and 



"94 ETYMOLOGY. {Substitutes.) 

Julia, which sustain a common relation to the asserter reverence — 
Thus, 

Maria ^ 

I > reverence their parents. 

Julia } 

Julia is a name, (to be described exactly like the name Mor- 
na,) connected by and^ with the name Maria, and having, with 
that name, a common relation to the asserter reverence, which de- 
pends on both to denote the persons who are the subjects of re- 
mark. 

Reverence is an asserter, transitive, representing this fact of 
the subjects, Maria and Julia, as extending to the parents as the 
objects ; [no one can reverence without reverencing something,] 
— it refers to, and depends on, the names Maria and Julia, the 
-words in the subjective case, to denote the subjects of remark. 

Their is a substitute; it is substituted for the names Maria 
and Julia ; simple, it stands merely in the place of the two names 
which it represents, and has the same relation to the name pa- 
rents, that the names would have, if they were in the place oc- 
•cupied by their. Thus, 

Maria ^ C Marians ^ 

I > reverence < | > parents. 

Julia } '( Juliah ) 

Maria ^ 

I > reverence \ their \ parents. 

Julia ) 

The substitute their is common ; a term common to both sexes, 
applied here to represent females, shown to be females, by the names 
for which the word their stands ; of the //iircZ person, denoting, not 
the ones speaking or writing, as such, but other objects spoken 
of; in the plural form, denoting a plurality of objects ; in the pos- 
sessive case, representing the persons denoted by it as having 
something ; and preceding, and depending on, the name parents, 
denoting what the ladies have, or possess. [The word their 
would be nonsense without the name parents ; as, they reverence 
their ! — their /] 

Parents is a name, general, common, of the third person, in 
the plural form, in the objective case, denoting the objects of the 
fact expressed by the transitive asserter reverence, on which it 
depends. [Try to make the sentence, omitting the asserter rev- 
■erence.'] 



{Substitutes.) etymology. SS* 

3 George paid, for his geography. Jive and a half dollars, which was 
too much. 

[Let the pupil parse, in full, the words which occur in the foregoing sen- 
tence, but which are not parsed ; and let him read, carefully, the parsing 
of the words which are here parsed.] 

For is a relative, showing the relation between the fact or 
event of George's paying the money, mentioned, and the geog- 
raphy, as the object for which he paid it. 

His is a substitute, a word substituted for a name ; simple, it 
stands merely in the place of the name George^s, which must oth- 
erwise have been used ; masculine, it denotes that a male creature 
is meant ; of the third person, denoting not the speaker or writer, 
as such, but another object spoken of; in the singular form, de- 
noting but one — in the possessive case, representing the person 
denoted by it as having or possessmg something ; preceding, and 
depending on the name geography, denoting the object possessed. 
[The word his would be nonsense without the word geography ; 
as, he paid, &c. &c. for his I for his ! !] 

Geography is a name, general, as the name of a hook, as here 
used, but particular, when meaning the science, or description of 
the surface of the earth ; neuter, of the third person, in the sin- 
gular form, in the objective case ; denoting the object to which 
the event of his paying the money was related — the object of the 
relation expressed by the relative for, on which the name geog- 
raphy depends. 

Five and a half, (parsed together,) is an adname, (like ten 
or twelve,) is a part of speech added to the name dollars, to lim- 
it its meaning — to show the number, and belongs to, and depends 
on, the name dollars. 

Dollars is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in 
the plural form, but singular in sense, meaning the sum or amount; 
in the objective case, denoting what he paid, as the object of the 
action expressed by the transitive asserter paid, on which the 
name dollars depends. 

Which is a substitute, substituted for the phrase, five and a 
half dollars ; connective, it unites different parts of what would 
otherwise stand as two distinct simple sentences — thus, "He paid 
five and a half dollars," &c. " Five and a half dollars was too 
much." These two sentences are, it is seen, united by the word 
which, that acts, also, as a substitute for the phrase ^^ five and a 
half dollars.''^ The word which is in the subjective case ; ber 
ing in the same case that the phrase "/ue and a half dollars,^^ 



/ 



96 ETYMOLOGY. {SubsHtutes.) 

for which it stands, would be in, if used, [see note /, p 85,] and has 
the asserter was depending on it for sense. 

Was is an asserter , intransitive, expressing the mere existence 
of the money represented by the substitute which ; it refers to, 
and depends on, the substitute whichy to denote the money as the 
subject of remark. 

Too MUCH, is a phrase, used as an adname, and referring to, 
and depending on, the substitute vMch, that represents the money 
which was too much — too much being joined in sense with the 
substitute, to qualify the sum paid for the book — to characterise its 
magnitude or amount, as too great. It was too great — too much. 

4 James ran two miles to overtake William, but it was useless. 
[Let the pupil parse the words which are not parsed, and read what is said 
concerning those which are parsed.] 

Two MILES, as a phrase, is a modifier ^ used to modify the mean- 
ing of the sentence, in qualifying the event of James' running, 
showing how far he ran.| 

To OVERTAKE is an asserter, used to express a fact ; transi- 
tive, it represents the fact denoted by it as extended to the object 
mentioned, the man William ; (as no one could overtake, without 
overtakmg something ;) it refers to, and depends on the name 
James, to denote the subject ; and has, also, a dependence on the 
asserter ran, showing what James, the man, did, to overtake Wil- 
liam. 

It is a substitute, substituted for the whole simple sentence be- 
fore the word but, describing the fact or event which was use- 
less ; simple, it stands merely as a substitute in the place of the 
sentence, and represents the sense of the whole expression descri- 
bing the event ; neuter, of the third person, in the singular form, 
in the subjective case, representing the event denoted by it as the 
subject of remark, and having the asserter was, depending on it. 

*Much is really 2l principal adname, belonging to the substitute which, 
and the word too, an auxiliar or helping adname, qualifying the principal 
adname much, and belonging, with that, to the substitute which ; as, the 
sum was large — the sum was too large. The boy was good — the boy was 
very good. This principle is fully explained hereafter, in connection with 
adnames. 

fThis phrase is composed of a name and an adname, which, united, act 
the part of a modifier. Thus, 

f two miles \ 

James ran < ^ > to overtake William — the words two miles 
I /a^ ) 

being used for the same purpose as the word far, to qualify the sense of the 
sentence which describes the event of the man's running. 



I 



{Substitutes.) etymology: 97 

Useless is an adname^ a word added to, or joined in sense with, 
the substitute it^ which represents the fact referred to ; it belongs 
to, and depends on, the substitute it. 

LESSON XIV. 

1 My friend met a man who was talking to himself. 2 Henry bought 
twenty bushels of the apples, and I took what were left. 3 Our ignorance 
of what is future, produces uneasiness. 4 Seth : I shall take Mr. Jackson's 
wheat, and you may take \^ hosesoever suits you best. 5 Samuel and I shall 
use George's boat, and Richard may use whichever person's he chooses. 

1. Friend is a name, general, common, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the subjective case, having the asserter met 
depending on it, to denote the subject. 

A is an adname, added to the name man, to limit its meaning, 
to show how the object denoted by the name is to be regard- 
ed ; whether particularly, or otherwise ; it refers to, and depends 
on, the name man. 

Who is a substitute, a word substituted for the name man ; 
connective, it is used to unite the different parts of what would 
otherwise be two distinct simple sentences ; as, " My friend met 
a man." " The man was talking," &c. The substitute who is 
in the subjective case, the same case that the name man, repeat- 
ed, would be in, is in, above, where the name is repeated. See 
I, p 85, and has the asserter was talldng, depending on it. 

2 What is a substitute, a word substituted for the name ap- 
ples ; connective, it is used to connect what would otherwise stand 
as two distinct sentences ; as, " I took the apples — The apples 
were left." It is in the two-fold case ; representing the objec- 
tive, from its relation to took, on which, like any simple objective 
word, it depends, showing the objects that I took ; and represent- 
ing the 5w6jective case, from its relation to the receptive asserter 
were left, which refers to, and depends on, the word what, as on 
any simple subjective word, to denote the subject of remark. 

3 What is a substitute, standing in the place of words that 
must, otherwise, be used to express the idea of the train of e- 
vents which is future ; in the two-fold case ; representing the ob- 
jective, from its denoting the object of relation expressed by the 
relative of, on which, like a simple objective word, it depends ; 
and representing also, the subjective, from its relation to the as- 
serter is, which depends on this word ichat, as on any simple sub- 
jective word, to denote the subject of the remark. 

4 Seth is a name, particular, masculine, of the second person, 
denoting the object addressed ; in the singular form, in the inde- 

9 



98 ETYMOLOGY. (^Substitutes .} 

pendent case, representing the person as independent of, and un- 
connected with, the event described. 

Whosesoever is a substitute^ connective, in the triple coinci- 
dence of case or relation, or the three-fold case; representing, on 
one hand, the possessor, and on the other, being in the objective 
case, from its relation to the asserter may take, on which, like any- 
objective word, it depends ; and being in the swJjective case from 
its relation to the asserter suits, which depends on the substitute, 
as on any subjective word, to denote the subject of remark. 

5 Whichever is an adname, joined to the name person^s for 
the purpose of discrimination, or to limit the meaning of the name. 
It belongs to, and depends on, the name personh. 

Person's is a name, general, common, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the triple coincidence of case, or the three- 
fold case. It denotes the possessor, and is therefore in the poses- 
sive case : and, besides, it is m the two-fold objective case, being 
used to represent the idea of the thing possessed, as well as the 
possessor ; and from its representing the thing possessed as the 
object that Richard may use, it is in the objective case, in its re- 
lation to the transit ive asserter may use ; and from its represen- 
ting the thing, (the boat,) as the object which Richard chooses, it 
is in the objective case, in its relation to the transitive asserter 
chooses. 

LESSON XV. 

Two men shall be in the field : one shall be taken and the other left. — 
God despiseth the proud, but giveth grace to the humble. Two are better 
than one ; because they have a good reward for their labor. The wicked 
are overthrown, and are not ; but the house of the righteous shall stand. — 
The wicked are driven away in their wickedness ; but the righteous have 
hope in their death. 

LESSON XVL 

Vf'ho is so blind in thought, that he expects happiness in any thing but 
duty ? Who has an arm like God's ? Who can fight against him 1 Whom 
can I find that will support me ? Whose arm will protect me ? Which is 
the way of life ? What can bring relief to the guilty mind ? What shall 
I do to be saved ? To whom shall we go 1 Thou hast the words of eter- 
nal life. 

LESSON XVIL 

He that is slow in anger, is better than the mighty. He that ruleth his 
spirit, is better than he that taketh a city. He that hath no rule over his 
own spirit, is like a city broken down and without walls. They w^ho give 
to the poor shall not lack ; but they that turn their eyes from suffering, 
shall have many a curse. 

LESSON XVIH. 

Whoever is partner with a thief, hateth his own soul. Whoever mock- 



{Asserters,) etymology. 99 

€th the poor, reproacheth his Maker ; and whoever is glad at their calami- 
ties, shall not go unpunished. The Lord loveth whomsoever he correcteth ; 
as the father correcteth the son in whom he delighteth. The way of the 
wicked is an abomination to the Lord. — Bible. 



ASSERTERS— Verbs. 



173 An asserter is a part of speech used to assert, or to 
express EXISTENCE, or a fact in relation to a person or 
thing; as, 

I am. Jane walks. John ate an apple. The apple was eaten by John. 

174 DISTINCTIONS OF ASSERTERS. 

C Principal, 



I. Primary Distinctions, 



II. Secondary Distinctions, 



III. Distinctions of Mode, 



IV. Distinctions of Tense, 



V. Distinctions with respect to Form, 



< Auxiliar, 
( Substitute. 

C Intransitive, 

< Transitive, 
( Receptive. 

f Declarative, 

! Inferential, 
Interrogative, 
I Commanding, 
(^Dependent.* 

' Prior-past, 
Indefinite-past, 
Prior-present, 
Present, 
Prior-future, 
Indef. -future, 

(^Indefinite. 

Regular, 

Irregular, 

Defective, 
C Singular, 
< Plural, 
f Common. 



•^Called unlimited mode, in the earlier editions of this work. 



100 ETYMOLOGY. {Assctters.) 

I, Primary Distinctmis. 

PRINCIPAL ASSERTERs — Principal Verbs. 

175 A principal asserter is one which, of itself, expi esses 
existence, or a fact in relation to a person or thing ; as, 

I am. I write. I study. I speak. I think.* 

AUXiLiAR ASSERTERS — Auxiliary Verbs. 

176 An auxiliar asserter is one which does not, of it- 
self, express existence, or a fact, but which is joined to a 
principal, to assist in varying its meaning ; and forms, with 
the principal, but one asserter ; as, 

I have written. I shall study. I can speak. I will think. f a 

SUBSTITUTE ASSERTERS. 

177 A substitute asserter is a principal or an auxiliar as- 



*Here it is seen that the word am, of itself, expresses mere existence, 
and from its relation to the word J, attributes to me, as the subject, the idea 
of existence, the fact of existing : while the asserters write, study, speak, 
and think, express, of themselves, certain facts, and by their relation to 
their respective subjective words, attribute these facts to me, as the subject, 
in the several examples. The words am, write, study, speak, and thinky 
are therefore principal asserters. 

fA It is seen that the words have, shall, can, and will, do not, as 
here used, express the facts mentioned ; but are joined to the prmcipals, 
written, study, speak, and think, to help them vary their meaning. These 
words, have, shall, can, and will, are called auxiliar or helping asserters. 
[The pupil can not be too particular in marking the two foregoing distinc- 
tions.] 

B The principal asserter is the only one which expresses the fact or e- 
vent mentioned ; B.s,l2orite. I wrote. I can write. I shall tvrite. I 
shall have written. [Here write, wrote, write, write, and written, are 
principal asserters, expressing the fact mentioned, the fact of writing.} 

c The auxiliar can never distinguish the fact or event mentioned ; as, I 
can ! I shall! ! &c. which are but nonsense ; yet the auxihars are joined in 
sense with the principal, to express its various modifications of manner, 
time, &c. as, 

D When 1 say, I lorite, (using only the principal asserter,) I assert the 
fact of writing, as done: but when I say, I can write, (using the auxiliar 
asserter can,) I affirm only my ability to do what the principal asserter, as 
before used , represents me as doing. So when I say , I will write, (using the 
auxiliar will, with the principal write,) I affirm only my purpose, or prom^ 
ise to do what the principal, loithout the aiunliar, would represent me a^ 
floingi &3j, I write— -thsit is, I do the business of writing. 



{Asserters.) etymology. 101 

serter, expressing the sense of a full assert er, and, at the 
same time, acting as a substitute for other words ; as, 

Though James can not go to Troy, finish my business, and return in 
six days ; yet Henry can*a George is not happy in his present circum- 
stances, but Seth is. 

II, Secondary Distinctions, 

INTRANSITIVE AssERTERs — NeutCTj mid Activc lutransitwe 
Verbs. 

178 I. An intransitive asserter is one which denotes the 
mere existence of the subject ; as, I aw, I was — or, 

II. It denotes an action or fact of the subject, without rep- 
resenting it as affecting an object, or as extending to an ob- 
ject; as, 

Jane walks. John sleeps. Grass grows. Flowers bloom. Waiter Jiows.\ 

*a Here the word can, as referring to the name Henry, asserts the per- 
son's ability to do what is mentioned in the foregoing part of the sen- 
tence. Can is therefore a full asserter ; referring, like any other asserter, 
to its subjective word, Henry. The word can is seen to be, also, a fuUsub- 
stitute, in sense, (not in relation to the sentence,) but in its substitution 
for the eleven words before it, to which it refers, to prevent the repeating 
of those words — Thus, 

not the word NOT, denying- what would otherwise be affirmed, is a modifier, 

b Tho' James can go to Troy, finish my business, and return in six dajs, 
yet Henry can. ----- - 

The word can, is not a mere auxiliar of the principal asserter go, which 
would be wrongly put into the sentence ; for the two words, can and go, 
— can go — applied to the name Henry, would express only one tenth part 
of what the word can expresses, without the word go — as the the mere as- 
serter can go, would then express only that the man can go ; that is, can 
move along ! 

c John is not at school in Boston this summer — but 

George is. [/s, a substitute asserter.] 

d Seth has a strong aversion to the science of the Language — but 
David has not - - -- --- - [ifas, asub.ass'r. 

[The word not, being a modifier, denying what has would oth- 
erwise affirm.] 

6 The substitute asserters are among the beauties of the language ; and 
are of very frequent occurrence. We could as well do without substitutes, 
as without substitute asserters. 



t Cd^Let the learner be very careful to turn back to the Lecture, and 
9* 



102 ETYMOLOGY. (AsserteTs.) 

TRANSITIVE AssERTERs — Actwe TransUive Verbs. 

179 A transitive asserter is one which represents an ac- 
tion or fact of the subject as affecting an object, or as 
EXTENDING TO an object ; as, 

James ate an apple. George caught a dove. Julia loves her brother.— 
John owns a house.* 

RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS — PttSsive Vcrbs. 

180 A receptive asserter is one which represents the ac- 
tion or fact denoted by the asserter, as received by the 
subject, or as extended to the subject ; as, 

The apple if?as caifm. The dove was caught. Henry is loved. The 
house is owned.* 

III. Distinctions of Mode* 

MODE — Mood. 

181 Mode is the means of distinction, including both the 
form of an asserter, and the manner in which it is used, in 
relation to a name or substitute, to express a fact, with- 
out reference to time. 

Limitation. 

182 8#^To be in any one of the first four following modes, the 
asserter must agree with the definition of that mode, and, as used 
with its associate words, must constitute an independent remark 
without the aid of another asserter. The asserter must be so used, 
that, if its subjective word was a name or simple substitute, it 
would with that, express what the name of the mode indicates. 

DECLARATIVE MODE — Indicative Mood. 

183 The declarative mode is that which declares that the 
fact denoted by the principal asserter, either has occur- 
red, or is occurring, or shall or will occur ; as, 

I had written. I Wrote. I have written. I write. I am writing. I 
shall write. I shall have written. 

INFERENTIAL MODE — Potential Mood. 

184 The inferential mode is the one which expresses, by 
inference, the idea, only of possibiUty, liberty, power, will, 

read from XX to XXX, including both numbers. He should not be per- 
mitted to advance to 181, till he shall have become familiar with the sub- 
ject of these three distinctions.~[For *'s on this page, read this JSIote."] 



{Asserters.) etymology. 103 

necessity, or obligation, in reference to the fact denoted by the 
PRINCIPAL asserter ; it never represents the fact as done ; as, 
I might have written. I may write. I must write. I should write, or 
ought to write. 

INTERROGATIVE MODE — Indicative and Potential. 

185 The interrogative mode is the one which interrogates 

concerning the fact denoted by the principal asserter ; as, 

Have I written ? Shall I write 7 May I write 7 Must I write 7 Should 
I uyrite 7 

COMMANDING MODE — Imperative Mood. 

186 The commanding mode is that which is used to ex- 
press, to a person or thing, a direct command ; as, 

James ; write. Julia ; study. My son ; he wise, and make my heart 
glad. 

DEPENDENT MODE — Infinitive Mood, and Participles. 

187 The dependent mode is that which expresses a fact, 
yet depends on another asserter, either to make the expres- 
sion definite, or to constitute an independent remark ; as, 

I was anxious to urite. Having written the letter, I sent it to the Post 
Office. 

188 An asserter may be used absolute, (without a subjective 
word,) in the commanding or the dependent mode, in a sentence 
of general address or remark ; as, 

Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. God said — " Let there be 
light." 

THE TREE OF MODES, 

On the following page, is intended to illustrate, farther, the 
principles of Mode. Notwithstanding the definitions of the five 
different modes given above, the learner will be pleased to find 
that there are really but three principal branches. 

I. The DECLARATIVE ; as, John writes, John is writing : 

II. The INFERENTIAL ; as, John can write. 

DIFFrom each of these springs another mode, 

The INTERROGATIVE ; as. Declarative mode, John is writing.— In- 
terrogative, formed from the Declarative, Is John writing ? Inferential 
mode, John can write. — Interrogative, formed from the Inferential, Can 
John U}rite 7 

III. The COMMANDING ; as, John ; write. 

Besides these three principal branches, and the Interrogative, springing 
from the Declarative and the Inferential, we have 

The DEPENDENT MODE, so called from the fact that it is never u- 



TO INFORM Henry. 



f WHO JMI OX=C4} 



c 






Qrf-TO INFORM . 



aXI^m f UqOf •K0Qe^4*^l5"lNF. John CAN WRITE 




s 

o 

2 

I 
I 
I 

H 
p:5 

w 




o 

o 

» 

CO 

S3 



{Asserters.) eytmology. 105 

sed without dependence on one of the other four modes. It may be used 
in connection with either of them, as may be seen in the following 

Contrast of the Modes. 

a gt^=-Remember that an asserter, in the dependent mode, never 
makes full sense — an independent remark, without the aid of an- 
other asserter ; but that an asserter in any other mode may make 
full sense, may constitute an independent remark, when taken 
with its associate words, \ ithout another asserter — 

(ji^=>That the inferential can not express command, or interro- 
gation, nor can it declare that what the principal asserter repre- 
sents, either has occurred, or is occurring, or shall or will occur. 

DECLARATIVE MODE. 

b " John has written a letter." Has written is the full asserter ; 
written, being principal asserter. This mode of usmg the asser- 
ter declares that the fact denoted by the principal asserter, the 
fact of writing, has occurred. This, therefore, should be called 
the declarative mode. The asserter, as here used, makes full 
sense, taken with its associate words, without another asserter. — 
This mode, therefore, can not be the dependent. 

c The asserter, as here used, can not express, to the subject of 
remark, a direct command to do what the principal asserter, writ- 
ten, expresses. This mode, therefore can not be the commanding. 

d The asserter, as here used with its subjective word, cd^nnot 
express interrogation, or ask a question concerning the fact which 
the principal asserter, written, represents. This mode, therefore^ 
cannot be the interrogative. 

e The asserter, as here used, declares that the fact denoted by 
the principal asserter has occurred. The inferential mode can 
never declare that the fact denoted by the principal, either has oc- 
curred, oris occurring, or shall or will occur : and as this asserter, 
does declare that the event has occurred, it can not be in the in- 
ferential mo^e, but must be in the declarative. 

/" John is writing." This makes full sense, &c. [as mentioned 
above. Therefore, in which mode can not the asserter be .^] The 
asserter, as used, declares that what the principal asserter repre- 
sents, is occurring. The asserter must, therefore, be in the de- 
clarative mode. 

[Proceed with this, (as with the former example,) as in h, c, d, and e, a- 
bove.] 

g " John will write the letter." This expression makes full 
sense, an independent remark. [In which mode can not the as- 



106 ETYMOLOGY. {Jlsscrters.) 

serter, will write, be ?] It declares that the fact of writing, 
(what the principal asserter represents,) will happen — he will 
write. The asserter is therefore in the declarative mode. 

[Pursue the same course with this, as with the former examples, to prove 
that this mode can not but be the declarative — can not be any other 
mode.] 

INFERENTIAL MODE. 

h " John can write the letter." This expression makes full 
sense, an independent remark. The asserter, can write, there- 
fore, can not be in the dependent mode. The asserter expresses, 
by inference, only the idea of the power or ability of the subject 
to perform the act denoted by the principal asserter, the act of 
writing. The asserter is, therefore, in the inferential mode. 

i The asserter, as used with its subjective word, can not ex- 
press to the subject, a direct command. It can not, therefore, be 
in the commanding mode. 

j The asserter, as here used, can not express interrogation, or 
ask a question. This mode, therefore, can not be the interroga- 
itve mode. 

k The asserter, as used, can not declare that what the princi- 
pal asserter represents, either has occurred, or is occurring, or 
ever shall or will occur. The mode can not, therefore, be the de- 
clarative. It must, then, be in the inferential mode. It cannot 
be in any other. 

INTERROGATIVE MODE. 

/ " John has written" — declarative mode. [Mark the arrange- 
ment of the words — first, John — then, has, the auxiliar — then 
written, the principal asserter.] 

m Has John written — interrogative mode — [Mark the new 
mode of arranging the same words — first, the auxiliar asserter has — 
then the name John — then the principal asserter, written. The for- 
mer mode of using the asserter, declares that the fact denoted by the 
principal asserter, the fact of writing, has occurred. The mode is 
therefore named the declarative. This, the latter mode of using 
the asserter with its subjective word, [" Has John written,"] 
interrogates, or asks a question concerning the fact denoted by 
the principal asserter, and is called the interrogative mode. 

n " Has John written ?" This expression makes full sense — 
an independent remark, without another asserter. This, there- 
fore, can not be the dependent mode. 

The asserter, as used, can not express, to the man, John, as 



{Asserters.) etymology. 107 

the subject of the remark, a direct command to do "what the prin- 
cipal asserter denotes. This mode can not, therefore, be the com- 
manding. 

p The asserter, as used with its subjective word, can not de- 
clare that the fact which the principal asserter denotes, either has 
occurred, is occurring, or ever shall or will occur. This mode can 
not be the declarative. 

q The asserter, as used, with its subjective word, interrogates^ 
or asks a question. The inferential mode can not interrogate. — 
Therefore this mode can not be the inferential. 

T The use of the asserter agrees exactly with the definition of 
the interrogative mode, and exactly c^mgrees with the definition 
of every other mode. This mode must, then, be the interrogor- 
live. 

si. John has written — Declarative. ^Has Johntcritten — Interrogative. 
II, John can write — Inferential. f^f^Can John write — Interrogative. 

t Here we have, first, (I,) the declarative mode; and next, 
§(^the interrogative, formed from the declarative — the samewords 
used in a different mode. Then we have, second, (II,) the infer- 
ential mode ; and, next, {ji^^-the interrogative mode formed from 
the inferential — the same words used in a different mode. 

COMMANDING MODE. 

u " John ; write the letter." This makes full sense — an inde- 
pendent remark, without another asserter. The mode can not, 
therefore, be the dependent. 

V The asserter, as used with the subjective word John, expres- 
ses to the man, as the subject, a direct command to do what the 
principal, the asserter write expresses. This mode is therefore 
called the commanding. 

w The asserter, as used, can not declare that the fact, (of wri- 
ting,) which it denotes, either has occurred, is occurring, or ever 
shall or will occur. The mode can not, therefore, be the declar- 
ative. 

X The asserter, as used, with its subjective word, can not in- 
terrogate. This mode cannot, therefore, be the interrogative. 

y The asserter, as used, with its subjective word, can and 
does express command- The inferential mode can never express 
command. This mode can not, therefore, be the inferential. 

z The use and sense of the asserter agree, exactly, with the 



108 ETYMOLOGY. {Assertcrs.) 

definition of the commanding mode, and exactly (disagree with 
the description of every other mode. This mode, " John^ write 
the letters," must he the commanding. It can not be any other. 

DEPENDENT MODE. 

aa " John sat down to write the letter." * John sat down.' — 
This expression makes full sense — an independent remark, with- 
out another asserter. The asserter sat^ can not^ therefore, be in 
the dependent mode. We will omit the asserter sat^ and its at- 
tendant word, down, and take the other asserter with the name 
John — thus, ^ iohn to write. ^ This makes «07i-sense — no sense 
at all : as, from the expression, ^ John to write,^ there can be no i- 
dea of what is meant — whether he sat down to write, or went 
home to write, whether he loved to write, or hated to write. As, 
then, this asserter, to write, taken with its subjective word, with- 
out another asserter, does not make full sense, the asserter is, 
must be in the dependent mode ; and can not be in any other. 

bb " John having written the letter, I took it to the post of- 
fice." I took the letter, (or it,) to the post office — this is full 
sense, and an independent remark : ' John having written the let- 
ter !' — this is not an independent remark — is not a full, perfect sen- 
tence. * John wrote the letter' — * John had written the letter.' 
These are, respectively, separately, perfect sentences, independent 
remarks. As, then, ' John having written the letter,' is not an 
independent remark, the mode of the asserter having loritten, is 
found to be the dependent mode. It can not be any other. 

cc. |l3=Remember, then, that an asserter in the depen- 
dent mode, taken with a word in the simple subjectiye 
case, never makes complete sense, expressing the meaning 
intended, without an asserter in someother mode in the same 
sentence on which to depend ; as, 

" John sat down to write." This is complete sense. * John sat down.* 
This is complete sense. The asserter sat, can not, then, be in the depend' 
ent mode ; for it makes complete sense taken with the simple subjective 
word John, though without an assserter in another mode. * John totvrite.* 
The asserter to lorite, taken with only the simple subjective word Johriy 
does not make complete sense ; but is non-sense. The asserter to write is 
hereby seen to be in the dependent mode ; for it makes complete sense 
when taken with the simple subjective John, and having the asserter satf 
in another mode, to depend on. 

dd tG^Remember that an asserter must be in the depend- 
ent mode, if depending on a name or simple substitute, 
which, without this asserter, would make sense in the sim- 
ple objective case ; as, 

"Isaw/oAn" — or, "I saw Aim." Either of these words, John and 



{Asserters.) etymology. 109 

him, makes sense, thus used, in the simple objective case. Then, any as- 
serter, which, added to either of these simple objective words, will make 
good sense, must be, when added, in the dependent mode. Examples : I 
saw John sit down to ivrite. I saw him ivrite. I saw him rvnning. — 
I saw John rise. The asserters in Italic are in the dependent mode : for 
they make good sense when joined to the words in small, capitals, 
which, without these asserters, would make sense as simple objective words. 
ee. " See spicy clouds." Here the name clouds makes sense merely as 
an objective word depending on the asserter see. Then any asserter which 
will make good sense when joined to the name clouds, in the simple objec- 
tive case, must be in the depejident mode. " See spicy clouds from lowly 
Saron rise." [See clouds rise, &c. &c.] The asserter me, as here used, 
makes sense by being joined to the objective word clouds, and depending, 
with that word, on the asserter see, in the commanding mode absolute. 

ff " George became anxious to learn." Here the asserter to 
ham depends on each and all of the three words before it : for, 
take out either of the three, and the asserter to learn would be 
incomplete in sense, or nonsense — Thus, 

George ^ 
I. became \ to learn — perfect sense — the asserter to learn depen- 

anxious ) 
ding on all three words. 



II. Became > to learn — the asserter to learn being nonsense, from 

anxious } 
the absence of its chief dependence, the name George. 

George ^ 
in. V to learn — the sense incomplete from the absence of 

anxious } 
the asserter became. 

George J 
IV. became > to learn — the asserter to learn nonsense, from the 



absence of the word anxious. 

gg Besides, the asserter in the dependent mode not only depends 
on a name or substitute, and an asserter in some other mode, but 
it may also, at the same time, depend, for its sense, on anadname, 
or a modifier, or both ; as, 

" The eagle soared so high as to be invisible." Here the as- 
serter to be, in the dependent mode, depends, first, on the name 
eagle — next, on the asserter soared, in the declarative mode ; and 
next, on the modifier .so high as. Take out any one of these 
parts of speech, and the asserter to be would either be nonsense, 
or would have its meaning and influence changed. The asserter 
10 



110 ETYMOi-oGY. {Asserters.y 

to be, has, here, it is seen, a three-fold dependence. An asserter 
in any other mode makes full sense when taken with only its sub- 
jective word. 

hh {^In the examples m the " Tree of Modes," page 104y 
the asserter at the end of each branch — the asserter to inform, is 
seen to be in the dependent mode ; for in each example the asser- 
ter would seem nonsense without the foregoing asserter, in anoth- 
er mode, on which to depend ; as, *' John is writing to inform 
Henry," — perfect sense ; is writing, being in the declarative 
mode : but, " John to inform Henry," would be nonsense. This 
remark may be applied to the asserter to inform, as connected 
with the inferential, the interrogative and the commanding 
mode ; and in each example, it would be seen that the asserter to 
inform, though making perfect sense with the asserter before it, 
in another mode, on which it depends, would be nonsense without 
the other asserter. 

ii ^(^Having gone through the distinctions of the modes, I 
now suggest a method by which the teacher can enable a pupil of 
the humblest capacity, to distinguish the modes. 

jj The teacher may write on the lower part of a black-board 
the abbreviations of the names of the different modes ; as, Dec. 
for Declarative — Inf. for Inferential — Int. for Interrogative — 
Com. for Commanding — Dep. for Dependent. Then let him 
make a mark either above, or after, each abbreviation — Thus, 

Dec. I Inf, I Int. \ Com. \ Dep. \ 

kk Then let the teacher give a sentence, and ask the pupil to 
tell in which mode he thinks the asserter is : as, " James writer 
elegantly." In which mode do you think the asserter is ? [' The 
declarative mode.'l Then let the teacher put a star, (*) or some 
other character, near the mark beside the name of the mode in 
which the pupil thinks the asserter is. Thus, 

Dec. \ * Inf. I Lit. \ Com. \ Dep. \ 

II 1 Then let the teacher question the pupil thus. Does the as- 
serter, in the sentence, (James ivntes elegantly,) mdike full serise 
— an independent remark, without another asserter ? [* Yes.'} 
Then, in which mode can not the asserter be } [' The depend- 
ent.'] Then let the teacher take off the mark after ' Dep.' as, 

Dec. I * Inf. I Lit. \ Com. \ Dep. 

[The choice is now (rom four modes.] 

2 Can the asserter, as written with the name James, express 



i^Asserters.) etymology. Ill 

command? [* No.'] Then in which mode can not the asserter 
be ? [' The commanding.'^] Take off the mark after ' Com.'' as, 

Dec, I * Lif. I Int, \ Com, Dep, 

[The choice is now from three modes.] 

3 Can the asserter, as used, interrogate, or ask a question ? — 
[' No.'] In which mode can not the asserter be ? [-' The inter- 
rogative.'] Take off the mark after ' Int.'' as, 

Dec. I * Inf, I Lit, Com, Dep. 

[The choice is now from two modes.] 

4 Can the asserter, as used, declare that the fact which the 
principal, writes, represents, has occurred, or is occurring, ov shall 
or will occur .'' [' Yes : it declares that the fact is occurring — does 
occur.'] In which mode can not the asserter be ? [' The infer- 
ential — as that can never declare that the fact has occurred, or is 
occurring, or shall or id// occur.] Take off the mark after ' Inf.' 
as, 

Dec. 1 * Inf. Lit. Com. Dep. 

The pupil then finds that he was right at first ; for, to use a 
homely phrase, he has cornered the asserter in the declarative 
mode — has found that it is in this mode, and can not be in any 
other. 

mm Let the teacher pursue the same course for some time, with 
respect to all the modes. Though the pupil, at first, should mis- 
judge of the mode of an asserter, let him not be corrected by the 
teacher, but let him go through a process like the foregoing, and 
he will be very likely to correct his own mistake. If he should 
not correct the error, the teacher might correct it, and illustrate 
more extensively, till the pupil should understand the process.* 



Different uses of the same Modes. 

189 The modes are named from their chief business — 
from what they would express if their subjective words were 
mere names, or simple substitutes ; though each mode may 

* [C? Let the pupil be exercised, as by the foregoing contrasts, till he shall 
have become aole to distinguish any mode at sight. Let him first determine 
froaithe characteristics and relations of the asserter, in which mode it is, 
.and then contrast that mode with the description of every other mode. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. {Asscrters.y 

be used in a sentence differing in sense from what its name 
indicates — the mode, itself, remaining unchanged — Thus, 

DECLARATIVE MODE. 

a Man is happy — declarative mode — declarative sentence. 

What mail is happy ) ^ ^ .- i r i. • ^ l- 

1X7,. 7 ' u } declarative mode, but mterrogative sen- 

Which man is happy ^ ' => 

tences ; made interrogative by the adnames v^haf and which, that are call- 
ed interrogative adnames when thus used — the jnode of the asserter being 
7iot interrogative, but still declarative, as in the example, ' Man is happy.' 

b Man ^ 

He > is happy. 
Wfio ) 

If we read the name man, or the simple substitute he, with the asserter 
is, the sentence and the mod^e are declarative : yet, if we read the word 2vhOy 
with the asserter is, the mode is declarative, being the same asserter, in the 
same form, and the same relation as before ; but the sentence is interrog- 
ative; made interrogative by the interrogative quality and character of the 
substitute who — an interrogative substitute. 

c John will carry me home. I shall be thankful — two declarative, positive 
sentences. 

If John will carry me home, I will give him a dollar. The sentences in 
the diagram should be read , first, like the first of the above sentences, and 
next, like the second sentence. 

John) .„ , ( I shall be thankful-two sentences. 

If John! «>M carry me home | i ^iUgi^^ him a dollar-one sen- 

tence conditional, made so by the word if'; and one contingent, expressing 
what is contingent on the fulfillment of the condition which if introduces ; 
yet the mode of the asserter will carry — \isform and relation to the name 
John, are the same, whether we read the asserter with the word in the up- 
per part of the brace, or with those in the lower. The mode is declarative 
in both ways of forming and reading the sentence. 

Oh that John i'"^''S'""''"°^"^"y- 

Read the name John with the words at the right of the brace, and the 
sentence is merely declarative ; but read the sentence with the words Oh 
that, before the name John, and the whole sentence expresses, not that John 
did go, [for Henry,] but mv regret that he didwo^ go: yet the asserter is in 
the same mode — in the same form and relatioyi to the name John, as be- 
fore. So is it with 

Oh fl t T ( ^^^ ^'^^ wings of a dove. 

INFERENTIAL MODE. 

e This mode is used for various purposes, and in sentences of various de- 
scriptions, while the mode remains unchanged ; as, 

I could write. If I could write, I would send a letter to Henry, 



{Asserters.) etymology. US 

In both examples the asserter is in the Inferential mode, but in the sec- 
ond, the sense is conditional, made so by the word if. 

INTERROGATIVE MODE- 

/, ^i » / my understand inffreacZ > .*,. , • i ^^ »> 

"Oh! may) ^ ^ 3 thjs glorious volume. 

If we read the asserter may read, commencing with the word may, in 
the upper part of the brace, and ending with the word read, both the sen- 
tence and the mode are interrogative : but if we begin with the word Oh, 
and read the whole in the diagram, the sentence is desirative, (expressing 
desire,) but the mode [^interrogative, the same as before. 

" Shall I go home ?" Interrogative mode, and the sense interrogative. 

" I shall not remain here, nor shall I go home." Shall go in the inter- 
rogative mode, while the sense of the last member of the sentence, (inclu- 
ding nor,) is negative. 

COMMANDING MODE. 

i if you would oblige me. 
g John go home \ if you would avoid taking cold. 

( if it is your wish to go. 

Here, if we read only the first three words, John go home, (or on\y John 
.go,) the asserter go is seen to be in the commanding mode, expressing noth- 
ing but a command to do the act — if we read these three words with what 
is in the upper part of the brace, the asserter go is used only to express 
what I entreat John to do, for my sake. If we read these three words with 
what is in the middle of the brace, the asserter is used only to express what 
I exhort John to do for his own sake. If we read the three words with 
what is in the lower part of the brace, (the third line,) the asserter g^o isu- 
sed only to express what \ permit John to do at his choice of action ; yet in all 
these modifications and variations of the sentences, the asserter go, and the 
name John are used in the same relation to each, and the asserter go has 
the same form — is in the same mode — the conunanding mode. 

h I may use the asserter let in one mode, (the commanding,) yet for dif- 
ferent purposes — Thus, 

I say, Let John go home — and my voice indicates entreaty. 

" Let John go home — and my voice indicates command. 

" Let John go to school ever so much, he will never be a 
scholar — a mere supposition. 

God said, " Let there be light" — expressing only the will of the 
Creator, in reference to the principle called light ; yet in all of these exam- 
ples the asserter let has the same form — is used in the same mode — the com- 
mcuiding mode — [absolute, or used without a subjective word.] 

DEPENDENT MODE. 

i This is used in dependence on all of the other modes ; as, John went 
home to visit his father. John may go home to visit his father. Will John 
go home to visit his father ? John ; go home to visit your father. 

J The various uses to which the same modes are applied, may be illus- 
10* 



114 ETYMOLOGY. {Asseticrs.) 

trated thus. James Wilson is, by business or profession, a lecturer on Gratft- 
mar. In superscribing a letter to him, I make the superscription stand, 
" James Wilson, Grammar Lecturer," the term of address or title indica" 
ting the man's chief business or profession. Some time afterwards I visit 
this gentleman at his residence, and find him working in his garden. Shall 
my next letter be superscribed " James Wilson, Gardener V Oh no — for 
though I saw him, the Grammar Lecturer, working in the garden, yet, as 
lecturing on Grammar is still his chief business, I must address him by a ti- 
tie which will indicate his chief business, not his accidental employment. 
I should therefore superscribe the letter as before, for I saw, in the garden, 
only the same man, the Grammar Lecturer. If I would describe ihe man, 
(as I would parse the asserter,) I should say " I saw James Wilson, the 
Grammar Lecturer, working in a garden ; as, I say, " I find the command- 
ing mode, used without change, in a sentence expressing desire," &c. &c. 
This is parsing — this is telling the facts. 

" Subjunctive Mood.'^'* 

The old theorists treat largely, yet vaguely, of what they call the "sub- 
junctive mood,^ or the " subjunctive form''^ of the asserter or verb ; as, 

*' If I be destined to suffer," &c. " If I were destined to suffer," &c. — 
*' Though he were John's brother, he could not be more kind to him," &c. 

The author of this work deems this mode of expression a departure from 
the best modern usage, and from the analogy of the principles of the lan- 
guage. He insists that in a conditional or a suppositive sentence, the asser- 
ter should have the same form as when used in a plain, positive, unquali- 
fied expression ; as, 

I am destined to suffer — If I am destined to suffer, &c. I was destined 
to suffer — if I tyas destined, &c. He was John's brother — Though he 
was John's brother, he could not be more kind to him. 

In parsing sentences in which such forms of the asserter occur, the au- 
thor would mention the asserters as being in the '« old subjunctive mood," 
or subjunctive form ; and would then tell what form, (the declarative or 
*Hndicative,") they should have, and parse the new forms, as being ac- 
cording to analogy, and the best modern usage. 

IV, Distinctions of Tense. 

190 Tense is the form in which an asserter is used in 
reference to a name or substitute, to represent a fact or event 
with respect to time. 

191 (i#-In determining the tense of an asserter, we must con- 
sider the asserter only in relation to the name or substitute on 
which it depends ; and then see what distinction of time is mark- 
ed by the asserter, thus considered. 

192 ^i^The tenses of the different modes are to be used in such a 
manner that their representations will correspond with their names j 



{Asserters.) UtymologIt. 115 

except in such circumstances as are otherwise directed by the spe- 
cial Rules of Syntax concerning the tenses. 

PRIOR-PAST — Plu-peifect. 

193 The prior-past tense is that which represents a past 
event as prior to another past event, or past time ; as, 

I had written the letter when James called. George had left the city 
when Henry arrived. 

INDEFINITE-PAST — Imperfect. 

194 The indefinite-past tense is that which represents a 
PAST event as indefinitely past ; as, 

I i6T0<e a letter. J dunes called. George left the city . Henry arrived. 
PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect. 

195 The prior-present tense is that which represents an 
event as having occurred prior to the present time, yet 
as in a period continued to, and connected with, the pres- 
ent; as, 

I have written the letter. James has called. Julia may have written. 

PRESENT. 

196 The present tense represents present time, or an 
event as occurring at the present time ; as, 

I write letters, lam ivriting. I am Henry's brother. He is younger 
than I. 

PRIOR-FUTURE — Secoud Futurc. 

197 The prior- future tense represents a future event 
as PRIOR to another future event, or future time ; as, 

I shall have written the letter when James will call. George will have 
left the city when I shall arrive. 

INDEFINITE-FUTURE Fivst FutUVe. 

198 The indefinite-future tense is that which represents 
a future event as indefinitely future ; as, 

I shall write. I will ivrite. James will call. I shall see William. 

INDEFINITE. 

199 The indefinite tense is that which represents an e- 
vent as indefinite wnth respect to time ; as, 

I would write to Henry if I could. I might see Harriet if she should 
return this week. I told John to write. I am seeing John write. I shall see 
him write. 



116 



ETYMOLOGY. 






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{Asserters.) etymology. 117 

Contrast of the Tenses. 

a The Prior-past tense represents a past event as prior to 
the time of the other past event, which past event limits, (at the 
latter end,) the period in which the first or prior event occurred. 
Thdit period, commencing however long before, is represented as 
continued to, not after, the time of the other event. It is prior 
to the past time or event to which it refers — Prior-past tense. 
[See the first step, (' I had written,^) in the opposite diagram.] 

b The Prior-present tense represents an event as prior to or 
before the present time, which limits, (at the latter end,) the pe- 
riod in which the eveiit occurred. That period, commencing how- 
ever long before, is represented as continued to, not after, the 
present time to which it refers. It is prior to the present time — 
Prior-present tense. [See the third step, (' I have written,') in 
the opposite diagram.] 

c The Prior-future tense represents 3. future event as prior to 
or before the time of the other future event, which future event 
limits, (at the latter end,) the period in which the first or prior e- 
vent is to occur. That period, commencing however long be- 
fore, is represented as continued to, not after, the time of the oth- 
er future event to which it refers. It is prior to the future time 
or event to which it refers — Prior future tense. [See the fifth 
step, (^ I shall have written,^) in the opposite diagram.] 

d 1. The Prior-past tense is never used without reference to 
another past, succeeding event to which it refers : yet, 

2 The Indefinite-past tense never, of itself, refers to a prece- 
ding or a following event ; but represents the event denoted by- 
it as indefinitely past. [See the second step, (' James called,^) in 
the opposite diagram.] It may refer to another event of the same 
period of time, or coincident with this, with respect to time; as, 
John came in. I was writing when John came m. 

e 1. The Prior-present tense, though referring to the present 
time, does not refer to another event. [This is one difference be- 
tween this tense and the other prior tenses ; as the other prior 
tenses refer to events as subsequent to their own] — yet, 

2 The present tense represents a present existence or event 
without any reference to other time or another event before or af- 
ter it ; as, I wiite — I am writing. [See the fourth step, [l write 
— am writing,^) m the opposite diagram] 

/ 1. The Prior-future tense is never used without reference to 
another future event or time : but, 



118 ETYMOLOGY. (Asscrters.) 

2 The Indefinite-future tense never, of itself, refers to a prece- 
ding or a following event ; but represents the event denoted by- 
it, as indefiriitely future. [See the last step, (' James will call,') 
ill the preceding diagram.] It may refer to another event of the 
same period, or coincident with this, with respect to time ; as, I 
shall be writing when John will come in. 

9 0'^='The Prior-past tense sustains the same relation to the 
Indefinite-past tense, that the Prior -present tense sustains \.o pres- 
ent time ; and that the Prior-future tense sustains to the indefinite- 
future tense. 

h (jf^From the foregoing explanations, and the diagram, it is 
seen that these six tenses occur in three couples or pairs ; the 
first couple, characterised as past : the second, as present : and 
the third, as future. By reference to the diagram, it will be seen 
that the prior tense of each couple points forward like an index to 
the other event or period with which it is associated : h\ii that 
the last tense of each couple does not point either way, or refer 
to a priofr or a subsequent event. 

THE INDEFINITE TENSE. 

i This tense, as its name indicates, marks no distinction of time 
at all ; but leaves the fact, event, or whatever the asserter may 
express, as wholly indefinite with respect to time : Thus, 

1. I assisted Joha — Past time, distinguished as such. J) 

2. I am assisting John — Present time, distingu'd as such. > I would assist 

3. I shall assist John — Fw^wre time, distingui'd as such. 3 

John if I could. This, would assist, does not distinguish past 
time, as such. Would assist can not, therefore, be a past tense. 
*' Am assisting,^'' as used in the second line, (2,) distinguishes 
the present time or moment, from future time. It means now, 
not a moment hereafter : but, '' I would assist John if I could" 
— would assist — this does not distinguish what I would do now, 
but would not do hereafter. It is not intended to distin- 
tinguish this moment as present, from the future time. Would 
assist, can not, therefore, be in the present tense. " I shall 
assist John." Shall assist, as used in the third line, (3,) of 
the diagram, letter i, above, distinguishes what it represents as 
a future fact. It distinguishes it as future, and fro?n the present 
time : but loould assist, as used, does not distinguish the matter 
as something future ; does not mean that I would do the act of 
assisting hereafter, but would not do it now. The utmost that 
the asserter expresses, is my willingness to do the act, provided I 
had the ability., but it leaves the time of the fact altogether out of 



(Asseriers.) etymology. 119 

the account. It expresses my willingness to assist the person 
"without any reference to distinction of time, as wholly indefinite 
with respect to time. Would assist is hereby seen to be in the 
indefinite tense. [Might, could, would, should, and ought to, u- 
sed separately as auxiliars, without the word have, as another 
auxiliar, always make the indefinite tense o( the inferential mode. 
The " old theorists" call this tense a past tense, though it can 
never repiesent past time.] 

I saw John run. 
j I am seeing John run. 

I shall see John run. 

The asserter run, is seen to be in the same form, and in the 
same relation to the name John, in all three of these examples : 
yet in the first example, the act is shown, by saw, to be a past 
act — in the next example, the act is shown, by am, of am seeing, 
to be a present act — and in the last example, the act is shown, by 
shall, of shall see, to be future. In all of these examples, the 
asserter run undergoes no change in form or relation, whatever 
the time of the event ; and this shows that the asserter is capa- 
ble of expressing only the fact — that it leaves the fact wholly indef- 
inite with respect to time. It is therefore said to be in the indef- 
inite tense. The same may be said of the second asserter in each 
of the following examples : 

1. I taught James to write. ^ C 1. I saw James writing. 

1.2. lam teaching James ^oit-nYe. > < II. 2. I see James writing. 

3. I shall teach James to write. ^ ( 3. I shall see James writing. 

1. 1 saw the letter written. 

Hi. 2. 1 am seeing the let'r loritten. 

3. 1 shall see the \&t\ex written. 

INFERENTIAL (" POTENTIAL") MODE, PRESENT TENSE. 

k Several of the old theorists rank this tense as, present, yet re- 
ally believe it to be a future tense. They teach the learner that 
this tense is, (the present,) vjhat they think it is 7iot ; and apolo- 
gise for calling it what it is ! This practice, so general, is great- 
ly to be lamented. 

" John: you may go home.'''' 
I This, these theorists deem to be a future tense, '* because," 
(they say,) " if John ever should go, it must be a /uiwreact." — 
They mis-judge in the absence of knowledge. The asserter may 
go, as here used, does not affirm that John will ever do the act. 
The utmost that the asserter expresses, is merely permission to 
do the act ; and as that permission, is a present permission, it is 
seen that all which the asserter does express is something present. 



120 ETTMOLOGY. {Assertcrs.) 

present permission. Inasmuch, then, as all that the asserter ex- 
presses, is merely the permission to do the act, and as that is a pres- 
ent permission, the tense is seen to be present, and only present. 

m Though I should add to the expression the word to-morroiv; as, 
" John ; you may go home, to-morrow 5" still, I express, by may 
go, only present permission to do vfhdit other loords may show, is to 
be a future act, (if it should ever occur, and that is uncertain,) and 
as all that may go can express is something present, present per- 
mission, the tense is clearly, purely, and exclusively, a present 
tense. 

" It MAY RAIN." 

n This, the old theorists pretend, is dL future tense, (though they 
call it present!) "for," they say, " this denotes what must be 
future, if it ever occurs at all." Concede this — that the fact of 
raining must be future if it occurs at all — still, all that the asser- 
ter expresses, is the mere possibility of the raining ; and as that 
possibility is necessarily a present possibility, the tense must be 
present. 

^t^Remember, that it is impossible to conceive the idea of a 
future possibility ; for nothing can ever happen unless it is {now) 
possible that it should happen. 

p {jt^Remember, that as all which the asserter may rain, (' it 
may rain.') does express, is the mere possibility of the laming ; 
and as that possibility is a present possibility, the asserter may 
rain, is, must be, in the present tense — just as much as the asser- 
ter am writing, in the sentence, " I am writing this article :'' for, 
as all that am writing expresses, is something present — a present 
fact, the tense is clearly present. So is itwith may rain. It ex- 
presses only possibility, in relation to the raining ; and as thai is 
a present possibility, the entire characteristic of the asserter, is 
that of present time — a present possibility — the present tense. 

Must. 
q " John must die.'" Many have deemed this the indicative or 
declarative mode; " because," they say, *' it represents what lui// 
occur ; as, nothing is more certain than that the man will die." 
This " bears on its face'^ the appearance of good argument ; but 
the question is, from what do we know that John will die ? Is it 
from the mere expression, John must die? or from our previous 
knowledge of nature's laws, the general doom of man. It is from 
the latter, and from this, only — for, 

r If, when I say, " John 7mist die,'*'' we know from this expres- 



{Asserters.) etymology. 121 

sioriy only, that he will die, that the fact will happen, then, when 
I say, " John must study," " John must improve his time," we 
know from these expressions, only, that he will study, that he will 
improve his time. 

s The utmost that must, as an auxiliar, implies, however used, 
is merely a present necessity of the occurrence of the fact deno- 
ted by the principal asserter. It can not declare that -what the 
principal asserter represents either has occurred, or is occurring, or 
shall or will occur ; as, " I must take care of my health." [It 
does not declare that I shall take care.] " John must go to New 
York." [It does not declare that he will go, but only implies 
the present necessity for his going. This is the inferential mode, 
and present tense.] 

COMiMANDING, (" IMPERATIVE,") MODE, PRESENT TENSE. 

t This tense, many of the old theorists name the present tense, 
yet apologize for calling it present, {|:^while they say it is real- 
ly a future tense ! [Then why not call it so ?] 
" John ; go home.^"^ 

u This, they say, denotes an action which must be future. — 
Admit it. Still, I ask, what is the utmost that the asserter ex- 
presses } A mere command to do the act — whether it will or 
will not occur at all. [The asserter does not declare that the fact 
(of going) ever will occur.] 

V Then, as the utmost that the asserter, thus used, can express, 
is the mere command to do the act ; and as the command is a pres- 
ent command, the tense is clearly, purely, exclusively, the present 
tense. 

w ^i^Having gone through all the distinctions of tense, I here 
suggest, for the teacher, a method by which he can enable a pu- 
pil of but ordinary discrimination, to distinguish the tenses from 
each other. Let the teacher do, with respect to the tenses, what 
has already been described in relation to the modes — that is, 

X {Ji^Let the abbreviations of the names of the different ten- 
ses, be written on the lower part of a black-board ; and, after 
each abbreviation, let a mark be put ; as, Pr. past, for prior-past — 
Ind. past, for indefinite-past, &c. &c. — Thus, 

Pr.past\ Ind. past\ Pr.pres.\ Pres.\ Pr.fut.\ Ind. fut.\ Ind.\ 

y {ji^^Then let the teacher write a sentence above the abbrevi- 
ations and marks ; as, " James died in Europe." Then let him 
ask the pupil in which tense he thinks the asserter is *, and put a 
11 



122 ETYMOLOGY. {Jlsserters.) 

star (*) or some other character beside the name of the tense 
which the pupil gives in answer ; as, In which tense is died, in 
the sentence given ? " Indefinite past." Then put the star be- 
side the mark after that name ; as, 

Pr.past\ Ind.past\* Pr. pres.\ Pres.\ Pr.fut] Ind.fut.\ Ind.\ 

z (^Then let the teacher ask — Does this asserter, died, taken 
with only its subjective v7ord, mark any distinction of time ? *'Yes : 
it distinguishes ^as; time, as such." Then the asserter can not 
be in the indefinite tense, for that does not mark any time, or dis- 
tinguish any period of time. Nor can the tense be either of the 
future tenses, or the present tense, if the asserter denotes past 
time. 

aa Then let the teacher take off the marks after the Ind. the 
Pr. fut. the Ind. fut. and the Pres.— Thus, 

Pr. past.\ Ind. pas t\* Pr. pres.\ Pres. Pr.fut. Ind. fut. Ind. 

The choice is now from three tenses. 

bb " James died.'^ Does this represent the fact described as 
past and prior to, or before some other past event referred to } — 
*'No." Then the tense can not be Prior-past. Take off the 
mark after that — Thus, 

Pr. past. Ind. pas t\* Pr. pres.\ Pres. Pr.fut. Ind. fut. Ind. 

The choice is now from two tenses. 

cc " James died.''"' Does this asserter represent the fact as in- 
definitely past, having no reference to the present time ; or does 
it represent the fact as a recent one, the expression referring to 
the present time, as though the fact had been done lately ? " It 
represents the fact as indefinitely past ; having no reference to, or 
towards, ])resent time.'' Then take off the mark after the Prior- 
present — Thus, 

Pr. past. Ind. past\* Pr. pres. Pres. Pr.fut. Ind. fut. Ind. 

dd The expression is seen to agree in time, with the definition 
of the Indefinite-past tense, and to disagree with the description 
of every other tense. The asserter died — '* James died" — must, 
then, be in the Indefinite- past tense, and can not be in any other.* 

*Let the teacher exercise the pupil in this manner in relation to all the 
tenses, till he, (the pupil,) can distinguish any tense at first sight. 



{Asserlers.) etymology. 123 

Different uses of the same Tenses, ' 

200 a Tenses, (like Modes,) are often used in circum- 
stances at variance with what the names of the tenses in- 
dicate, in consequence of a want of greater varieties of the 
forms of the asserter. 

If- 

J) The word if, has the effect to bring the tenses forward one degree or 
division of time : at least it has this effect on the Prior-past, Indefinite- 
past, and the Present tense. Thus, 

c I was at home yesterday — Was, in the Indefinite-past tense. 

If I had been at home yesterday, I should have seen John — 
Had seen, in the Prior-past tense — used with if, in reference to time a- 
greeing with the proper use of the Indefinite-past, without the if. 

d I am at home — Am, in the Present tense. 

If I was at home, I should be glad of your visits — Was, the 
Indefinite-past tense, used with if, in reference to time agreeing with the 
proper use of the Present, without the if— the past tense used with if, to 
represent what ispresent; shown, by other words, to be present. 

e William goes to school — Goes, in the Present tense. 

If William goes to school next summer, John will accompany 
him. Goes, used with the word */, to represent a fact contemplated as fu- 
ture, what, without the if, would be expressed by a future tense ; as, 'Wil- 
liam will go to school next summer." 

When, Till, and Before, 

f Have a somewhat similar influence on sentences relating to future time: 
Thus, 

I shall be in New- York, when John arrives — Arrii^es, in the 
Present tense, the form, which, of itself, denotes a present occurrence ; but 
used here with the word when, to express a fact contemplated as future, 
and shown, by other words, to be future. 

g I shall remain here till George returns from New-York — 
Returns, \u.ihe present tense, ex\ixessmg a fact contemplated -^future, 
shown, by otlier words, to be future. 

h Seth : you should take an umbrella ; for it will rain before 
you have travelled five miles — Have travelled, in the Prior-present tense, 
yet expressing what is contemplated as something future, shown, by other 
words, to be future. 

INDEFINITE PAST. 

I This tense is frequently used, (and should be,) to represent one past e- 
vent which happened before another past event, {)i^=if a period of time is 
mentioned as having elapsed between the two events ; as. 

The general arrived at the camp three days before the battle was fought: 
Yet arrived is not in the Prior-past ; for though it represents an event 
which ♦* was past, and prior to another past event, yet arrived does not 



124 ETYMOLOGY. {AssettCTS.) 

as 
represent the event^ though it was both past and prior to another past e- 
vent — * The general arrived' — this does not represent the event of arrivirtg 
as though referring to, or as connected with any other event. 

J To make a tense the Prior-past, it must not only represent an event 
which is past and prior to another ; but it must also, of itself, represent 
the event as though it was both past and prior to another event also past. 

INDEFINITE FUTURE. 

k This tense is frequently used, (and should be,) to represent one future 
event which is to occur before another future event, fjcf^if a period of time 
is mentioned that will elapse between the two events : as, 

The general will arrive at the camp three days before the battle will be 
fought : 

Yet will arrive is not in the prior-future tense : for though it repre- 
sents an event which will occur before another future event mentioned ; it 
does not represent it as though referring to another future event. 

/ To make the tense Prior-future, it must not only represent an event 
vrhich will happen before another future event ; but it must, also, of itself, 
represent it as though it would happen prior to another future event to 
which this refers. 

V. Distt7ictions with respect to Form, 

THE PRIMARY FORM 

201 Of an asserter is that which is used without an aux- 
iliar, in the declarative mode and present tense, depending 
on the substitute I ; as, 

I lovey I walky I speak, I write. 

A REGULAR ASSERTER 

202 Has its past tenses made by adding d to the prima- 
ry form ending in e, and EDto primary not ending in e ; as, 

Primary form— I love, I walk. 

Past tenses— I had lov-ed, I had walk-cc?— I lov-ec?, I wdAk-ed—l have 
\ov-ed, I have walk- ed. 

AN IRREGULAR ASSERTER 

203 Does not have its past tenses made by adding d, to 
the primary form ending in e ; or by adding ed to the pri- 
mary not ending in e ; as. 

Primary form— 1 speak, I write. 

Past tenses— I had spoken, I had written— I spoke, I wrote— I have spO' 
ken, I have written. 

A DEFECTIVE ASSERTER 

204 Is a principal asserter that can not properly be used 
in all the different modes and tenses ; as, 



{Asserters.) etymology. 125 

John, beware of the allurements of vice. '* It is no more than justice, 
guoih tlie farmer."* 

THE SINGULAR FORM 

205 Of an asserter is that which pertains to a name or 
substitute of the third person, and in the singular form ; as, 

The pupil thinks. He speaks. He reads. He writes. He runs. 

THE PLURAL FORM 

206 Of an asserter is that which pertains to a plural 
name or substitute ; as, 

The pupils think. They speak. They read. They write. They run.\ 

THE COMMON FORM 

207 Is that which is properly associated with either a sin- 
gular or a plural name or substitute, in the simple subjec- 
tive case. It is the form which pertains to both ; as, 

Singularname and substitute ; the man ^a^^ been — he had been: Plu- 
ral ; the MEN had been — they had been.] 

OTHER DISTINCTIONS OF FORM. 

208 Besides the above distinctions, the forms of asserters 
are also called continuative, and completive, according 
to their terminations and meaning. 

THE COMPLETIVE FORM 

209 Of an asserter denotes the completion of the fact 
or event at the time referred to ; as, 

James wrote a letter. Henry visited his brother. I saw the hoo^printed. 

THE CONTINUATIVE FORM 

210 Of an asserter denotes the continuance of a fact 
or event at the time referred to ; as, 

I saw James writing a letter. Henry ivas visiting his brother. The 
book t«as being printed when I was in the city. 

*The learner will readily perceive how awkward would be the expres- 
sion, I had bewared, thou hadst bewared, hthad bewared; or, 1 had quoth- 
ed, thou hadst quothed, he had quothed. 

t There is a difference only in a few particular places, as will be seen 
by reference to the following inflection of asserters. In the other places 
the singular and the plural subjective words have a common form of the as- 
serter. 

11* 



126 ETYMOLOGY. {AssertCTS.) 

DIAGRAM OF THE MODES AND TENSES. 



DECLARATIVE MODE — Indicative Mood. 



LOVE 
W^RITE 



SIX TENSES. 

Prior-past, 

Prior-present, 

Prior-future, 



SUBJ. 
WORDS. 

I 
I 
I 



AUXILIARY 



PRINCIPALS. 

Reg. In eg. 



shall 



will 



had ^ 
have I 



have 



5^ loved — written. 



J 



From this, it is seen, that in all three of the prior tenses, the principal 
asserter has the same form: the change being only in the auxihars. 



LOVE 
WRITE 



Indefinite-past, 
Indefinite-future, 



I 



Pres. (emphatic) I 
^Pres. (primary form) I 



i; 



did •] 

shall I 



will 
do 



> love — write. 



love — write. 



From this it is seen that in the other three tenses of this mode, the prin- 
cipal asserter, used with an auxiliar, has but one form, which is ihe prima- 
ry form of all asserters, except am or 5e, which has he, m these tenses, when 
used with an auxiliar. 

INTERROGATIVE MOB^—FoTvied frovi the Declarative, 

c The tenses, subjective words, auxiliars, and principals, are the same 



in this, as in the foregoing, from which it is formed; 
ly in the arrangement of words. 

d { Prior-past, 

Prior-present, 



LOVE 
WRITE 



LOVE 
WRITE 



Had I 
Havel 
Shall I 



I Prior-future, 
f Indefinite-past, 

I 

\ Indefinite-future, 

I 

^^ Present, 



have 



the difference being on- 

1 

1 

)■ loved— written 7 



Will 

Did 

Shall 

Will 
Do 



J 

1 

^ love- 



write ? 



Present, primary form of the asserter. Love /? Write /?* 

From this it is seen that the change from the declarative mode to the in- 
terrogative, is not necessarily a change of the/orm of the asserter, but may 
be, and generally is, a change only of the arrangement of the words. 

*Grave style ; as, ♦' Lovest thou me ?" Love I not mine own 1 



{Asserters.) etymology. 

INFERENTIAL MODE — Potential Mood. 



12T 





FOUR TENSES. 




/ I. LOVE— WRITE. 


g II. LOVE WRITE. 


^ might 
1^ could 
i I would 
1^ should 




might 
could 
I would 
should 




^ ought to ^ 
§ may 
^Ican 


have loved— written 


ought to 
may 
I can 


love write 


q;J must 


fts 


must 





The same form of the princi- 
pal asserter is used in all the pri- 
or tenses, whatever the modes ; 
the change being only that of 
the auxiliars. 



In the Indefinite and the pres- 
ent tense, the principal asserter 
has but one form : the change 
being only that of the auxii- 



INTERROGATIVE MODE — Formcd from the Inferential. 

Tenses the same — Subjective words the same. 
h III. LOVE— WRITE. i IV. LOVE— WRITE. 






Might 

Could 

Would 

Should 

Ought 

May 

Can 

Must 



1 



to K^ 

I hdive loved-written? ^ 

A Si 



Might 

Could 

Would 

Should 

Ought 

May 

Can 

Must 



to 

I love — write ? 



J 



1 From this, (III and IV, as compared with land II,) it is seen that all the 
change there is, in passing from the Inferential to the Interrogative, formed 
from the Inferential, is merely the change of the relation, place, or loca- 
tion of the first auxiliar considered with the subjective word. 

2 It is seen that all of the words have the szmeform and the same relation 
to each other, and that the change in sense or meaning is the consequence 
of only the change in the relative location of words. 

3 This change consists only in placing the ^/-s^ auxiliar before the subjec- 
tive word, to make the Interrogative mode, instead of having the auxiliar 
stand after the subjective word, as in the Inferential. 

4 The words ought and to, of the auxiliar ought to, are separated by the 
subjective word ; Inferential mode, I ought to go home— Interrogative 
mode, ought I to go home. 



128 ETYMOLOGY. {Asserters.) 

COMMANDING MODE — Imperative Mood. 

SUBJ. 
ONE TENSE. AUXILIAR. PRINCIPALS. 

) WORDS. 

"-"^Mpresent, J"''" ^ ^° \ write. °'' 

WRITE / ' ^ * 



John; '<"'*; 

' ( write. 



k The commanding mode has but one auxiliar, and one form of the prin- 
cipal, except when the asserter is receptive. Then another auxiliar and an- 
other form of the principal are given. 

DEPENDENT MODE. 

There are two Tenses in each Division. 
I First Division —Infinitive Mode. 

AUXILIARS. PRINCIPALS. 

LOVE J Prior-past, John to have loved—written. 

^ WRITE I Indefinite, John to love—to write, 

m Second Division — Participles. 

LOVE ( Prior-past, John Having loved-written. 

WRITE I Indefinite, John loving-writing-loved. 

SUBJECTIVE TERMINATIONS. 

211 In addition to the other distinctions, asserters have what 
are called subjective terminations, from the fact that certain pecu- 
liarities of form are to be used in connection with subjective words 
of certain descriptions. 

212 Asserters should not disagree with the following rules for 
terminations, Asserters in the commanding and the dependent 
mode, are not influenced by the characteristics of the names or 
substitutes to which they refer. 

213 THE AUXILIAR ASSERTERS ARE 

May might Will would Do did Must and 
Can could Shall should Have had Ought to. 

214 The auxiliars always have the same forms that are here 
given, except when used with the substitute thou ; and except that 
do is exchanged for does or doth, and have for has or hath, when 
referring to a subjective word of the third person, singular form. 

215 Thou, as a substitute, requires st^ to be subjoined to all, 
(used as first auxiliars,) except must, shall, will, have, and ought to. 

216 Must has no change. Shall and will exchange the last / 
for t : and have, exchanges its ve for st. Ought has st before to. 



{Jlsserters.) etymology. 129 

217 Hath is used for haSy and doth for does, in the grave style. 

218 Am or be, (as the asserter denoting mere existence is cal- 
led,) has the same forms when used as an auxiliar, as when used 
as a principal asserter. It should always be used in such forms 
and relations as are seen in the following inflections. 

219 Thou requires the subjective termination st, to all princi- 
pal asserters, except am or be, which has the same forms, (as here 
given in the inflection,) whether used as a principal, or as an 
auxiliar asserter. 

220 (^li the learner will observe, carefully, the asserter, as 
he advances in the inflections, he will find in it an admirable 
simplicity ; there being bat few diSerent forms of any principal. 

221 The great varieties of form in Mode and Tense, are pro- 
duced almost wholly by a few auxiliars of one syllable each. — 
This reduces very much the labor of learning the inflections.* 

222 (|(^The following inflections are given as models for the 
formation of asserters in the various modes and tenses ; and should 
be regarded as rules. They embrace every variety of form in 
application, that should be used. 

IJf FLECTIOI^ 

OF THE IRREGULAR INTRANSITIVE ASSERTER am, OR bs. 

Declarative Mode — Indicative Mood. 
a PRIOR-PAST — Plu-perfect. b indefinite-past — Imperfect. 

.11 ) 

.St t^ 2 Thou } was t § 

c^ 3 He ) 

had been ^ 1 We ^ 

I 2 You-ye ^ were 
^ g 3 They ) 

*The English language is found to be more simple or less multiform in its in- 
flections than any other known language, ancient or modern. 

fThe pupil should remember that the figures 1, 2, and 3, mean the Firsts 
Second, and the Third Person, of the substitutes. 

tin ordinary discourse you^ with the plural form of the asserter, is to be 
used in preference to thou^ and the form which that requires after it. [See 
148, p 77.] The " Friends," however, with admirable simplicity, use the 
grave style, in common conversation. For their benefit thou is given in 
this work, in all the varieties of inflection, (jcf^ln the following inflections 
st and t, after thou, are to be added by the pupil to the auxiliars, as explain- 
ed by 215 and 216, p 128. 

§As the feminine substitute she, audthe neuter substitute ityhz.ve, respec-- 




ETYMOLOGY. 



{Asserters.) 






been 




c VRIOR'P JBS:fi— Perfect. d present. 

1 I ha ve " 

5^ 2 Thou ha st 

"^ 3 He ha s 

1 We ^ 

2 You-ye > ha ve 

3 They ) 

€ PRIOR-FUTURE — Secoud Future. f indef. future- 
II) II 

2 Thou , \ . . t 

3 He ) shal 1 ) J^ 3 

1 We S% 

2 You-ve > wil 

3 They" ) 



are 



■First Future. 



1^ 2 Thou 
He 



shall 



have heen^ 1 We 

i 2 

s: 3 



he 



You-ye 
They 



Interrogative Mode- 

g prior-past — Flu-perfect. 



been? 




Jpe>f^i 



been? 



-formed from the Declarative, 
h indef. past — Imperfect. 

Was t ^ tKnn ? 



^ thou 
^he? 



Were 



you-ye 
they ? 




k PRJOR-vvTVRE— Second Future. I indef. future — First Future. 






Shall 



Wil 1 



I 

thou 

he 

we 

you-ye 

they 



have been ?^ 



i 

Shall 

Wil 1 



I 

thou 

he 

we 

you-ye 

they 



be? 



tively, the same form of the asserter that the mascuHne substitute he re- 
quires, the former two will not be repeated in the inflections. Weit was 
formerly used as the indefinite-past tense, assoeiated with thou; but it has 
fallen into disuse. 



{■Asserters.) etymology. 

Inferential Mode— Potential. 

m PRIOR-PAST — PlU'perfect. 



131 



^ 1 I 

•S 2 Thou 
^ 3 He 
1 1 We 

^ 2 You-ye 
^ 3 They 



6. 1 I 

•S 2 Thou 

"^ 3 He 

g 1 We 

-§ 2 You-ye 

'^^ 3 They 



^ 1 I 

•S 2 Thou 

"^ 3 He 

1 1 We 

^ 2 You-ye 

^ 3 They 



^ 1 I 

•S 2 Thou 

^ 3 He 
1 1 We 

i 2 You- 



st 



might, could, would, should, or ought to have been. 



n INDEFINITE — Impeyfcct . 



St 

might, could, would, should, or ought to be. 



o PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect. 



St 



may, can, or must have been. 



p PRESENT. 



St 



c may, can, or must be. 
'^ 3 The/ ) 
Interrog-ative Mode—Forined from the Inferential 



q PRIOR-PAST— PZw-per/ecif. 

1 I 



St 



Might, could, would, or should,* < 



t*See note * next page.] 



2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



HAVE been} 

ft. 



182 



ETYMOLOGY. 



{Jlsserters.) 



r INDEFINITE — Imperfect. 



St 



Might, could, would, or should. 




s PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect, 
1 I 

St 



May, can, or must,' 



thou 
he 



you-ye 
they 



t PRESENT. 



St 



May, can, or must 



1 I 

2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



s; 
HAVEfteew? 

-a 
ft. 



5e? 



Commanding Mode— Imperative Mood. 
[Always in the Present Tense. 1 

223 Singular and plural subjective words have the same, the 
common form, of the asserter in this mode. Thus, 

u (^ Be thou — you, or ye, or 
Do thou — you, or ye 5e.| 

Dependent Mode. 

224 This is used in two divisions, called the First and Second. 

THE FIRST DIVISION 

225 Is SO named from its having, in the Indefinite tense, with 

*In the Interrogative mode, the auxiliar ought to^ is used as well as the 
other auxiliars ; yet in this mode, the word to, accompanying ought, is al- 
ways separated from ought, and comes after the subjective word ; as, ought 
I to have been there 1 — ought I to be there ? 

fThis mode is often used with a subjective word of the third person, to 
express desire; as, " Thy kingdom come^^ — " Thy will he done.** " This 
day, he bread and peace my lot." "Freedom forever ! Palsied be the arm 
that shall rise against it." *• Long live the king,'* &c. &c. 



{Asset ters.) etymology. 133 

the word to^ the primary form of all asserters, except am or he, 
(of which it takes he,) and its requiring the primary form of the 
asserter have, as its auxiliar ; as, to love, to have loved. 

THE SECOND DIVISION 

226 Is so named only to distinguish its forms from those of the 
first : thus, 

DEPENDENT MODE — First Division. — Infinitive Mood. 
V INDEFINITE TENSE — Present Tense. 
Completive form, To he. 

Continuative form, 

w PRIOR-PAST TENSE — Perfect Tense. 
Completive form. To have heen. 
Continuative form, 

SECOND DIVISION — Participks. 

X INDEFINITE TENSE. 

Simple Completive form, Been."^ Perfect Participle. 
Simple Continuative form, Being. Present Participle. 

y PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

Completive form. Having heen. Compound Perfect Participle. 
Continuative form, 



INFLECTIO]^ 

OF THE REGULAR TRANSITIVE ASSERTER,* love. 
[^Completive Jorm.'\ 

Declarative Mode — Indicative Mood, 
a PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. b indefinite-past — Imperfect. 

^11 ) « 1 I } 

^c 2 Thou V . St 1, 2 Thou ^ . . st 

I 3 He \ , 1 I 3 He \ 

ZlWe j ^^^ ^^^^^ !! 1 We ) ^°^^" 

I 2 You-ye > | 2 You-ye > 

S; 3 They ) '^ 3 They ) 



* This word is not used except when preceded by the auxiliar have, or 
some of its variations. 

12 



134 


ETYMOLOGY. 


{Asserters.) 


C PRIOR-PRESENT— 


-Perfect. d present. 


^"11 ha ve 

I2 Thou ha st ' 
1 3 He ha s ' 
^ 1 We ha ve 
1 2 You-ye ha ve ' 
»; 3 They lia ve ' 


^ §,2 Thou V 

^-^-!?We 

[ 1 2 You-ye V 

) ^ 3 They ) 


... St* 

st 

LOVE let 



* 1 Thou, as a substitute, has the subjective termination, st, added to the 
primary form of the asserter used without an auxiliar in the Present tense. 
\^Am or be is an exception. See letter d, p 130.] 

2 Thou, 2iS a substitute, has the subjective termination, st, added to the 
form of the asserter associated with the substitute /, in the Indefinite-past 
tense, used without an auxiliar ; as, I loved — thou loved*^, &c. 

fA noun or substitute of the third person zr\6 in the singular form, has 
the subjective termination, s, added to the ^n'mar?/ /orm of an asserter, 
when used in the Present tense without an auxiliar ; as, I love — write ; 
John loves — write*. Jn the grave style the subjective termination is th; 
as, I love — write ; he \oveth, vfriteth. [The asserter am or beis an excep- 
tion. For this, see, he is, letter d, and is he, letter J, p 130.] 

" Subjunctive Mood.''^ 

Xa The " Subjunctive mood'' of the old theories of Grammar, is found 
to be but parts of the Declarative, the Inferential, and the Interrogative 
mode of this system ; and is disposed of under these heads. [See Subjunc- 
tive mood, page 114.] — Illustrations : 

& " I study" — Declarative mode, present tense : 

If * I study' I shall improve : the sa7ne mode and tense, the same forni 
and the same relation to the subjective word I; yet the asserter study ex- 
presses, now, what if shows to be a conditional matter ; and what other 
words show to be something future. [See remarks — letters a, b, c, £?, and 
e, p 123 ; as, also, in Syntax, the Rules concerning the tenses.] 

c " John studies" : Declarative mode, present tense : 

If ♦ John studies' he will improve : the same mode and tense, the same 
form, and the same relation to the subjective word John; yet the asserter 
studies, expresses, now, what i/" shows to be a conrfi/zona/ matter, and what 
other words show to be something future. [See references, as noted at the 
end of paragraph b, immediately above.] 

d " John should ivrite" : Inferential mode, Indefinite tense : 

If * John should ivrite,' he would hear from Henry : the sajne rnodeznd 
tense, the same form, and the same relation to the subjective word John; 
yet the asserter should write, expresses, now, what if shows to be a con- 
ditional matter, and what other words show must be a future fact, if the fact 
should ever occur. [See references at the end of paragraph b, above.] 

e " Had John been there ?" Interrogative mode, Prior-past tense. 

' ifarf John 6eew there, 'he might have assisted William : the samemode 
and tense, the same form and arrangement, and the same relation to the 
subjective word John ; yet the asserter had been, expresses what the subse- 
quent words show to be something conditional — the mode and tense of the 
asserter, as has already been hinted, remaining unchanged. 



{Asserters.) etymology. 135 

€ vb-wr-vvtvue— Second FtUure.f indef. future — First Future, 

M 1 I 



I 2 Thou 
ig 3 He 
-. 1 We 
^ 2 You-ye 
S; 3 They 




S)2 Thou 



have 

LOVED, a 



I 3 He 
1 We 



^ 2 You-ye 
q; 3 They 




LOVE. 



Interrog'ative Mode — Formed from the Declarative. 



Had 




LOVED/ 






INDEFINITE-PAST — Imperfect. 
1 I ) 

St 2 thou }■ 
3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



Did 



LOVE?* 



i PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect. 



I 

^^ Ha 



1 I 

2 thou 

3 he 
I we 

J veJ2 you-ye 
R^ vei3 they 

A: PRIOR-FUTURE — Secoud Future. I 
1 I 
thou 
he 
w^e 



y LOVED? ^ 

i «' 

P. 



Do 



LOVE 



t 

Shall 



i Wil 1 



you-ye 
they 



have 
} loved ? 



J PRESENT. 

1 I 

2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 

INDEF. FUTUR E — First Future. 

1 I 

2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



t 

Shall 

o 

Wil I 



LOVE 



Inferential M-Ode— Potential Mood. 

m PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. 

.SI I 1 

Id 2 Thou I . St 



'^ 3 He 
^ 1 We 
^ 2 You-ye 
S: 3 They 



* might, could, would, should, or ought to have loved. 



^Graye siyXe-^Loved I ? Lovedst thou ? Loved he his friends 1 &c. 



13& 

g,2 Thou 
I 3 He 
^ 1 We 

I 2 You-ye 
»: 3 They 



g, 2 Thou 
I 3 He 
^ 1 We 
I 2 You-ye 
S: 3 They 



I 1 I 
g) 2 Thou 
I 3 He 
^1 We 

^ 2 You-ye 
ft^ 3 They 



ETYMOLOGY. {Asscrters.)- 

n INDEFINITE — Imperfect. 

. . St 
might, could, would, should, or ought to love. 

PRIOR-PRESENT — Perject. 

. . st 
> may, can, or must have loved. 



p PRESENT. 



St 



> may, can, or must love. 



Interrogative Mode — Formed from the Inferential 
PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. 
fl I 

St 1 2 thou 
3 he 



Might, could, would, or should 



Might, could, would, or should 



1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 

INDEFINITE— /mj9«/(?C^ 

I 2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

, 2 you-ye 

[ 3 they 



have LOVEDr 



st 



LOVE 



(Assertefs.) 



May, can, or must. 



May, can, or must. 



ETYMOLOGV. 

5 PRIOR-PRESENT — FeffecU 

1 I 

St 2 thou 
3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 

t PRESENT. 

fl I 

St 2 thou 
3 he 
'^ 1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



137 



have LOVED ? 

Ah 



05 
LOVE? 



Coimiianclin^ Mode— /m^jera^ive Mood^ 

u (Always in the Present Tense.) 

T { thou, 

Love \ ^ 

( you J or ye.* 

Do 1 ' > LOVE.tA 

( you, or ye, \ 
Dependent Mode. 

FIRST DIVISION — Infinitive Mood. 
V INDEFINITE — Present. 

To LOVE. 
w PRIOR-PAST — Perfect. 

To have loved. 

* See 223, and note f, p 132. 

fA In the Commanding mode, the asserter, with the subjective word 
yoit or ye, is used in the same manner as in the Present tense of the Declar* 
ative mode, and of the Interrogative formed from it. Circumstances or the 
sense of the other words, alone, must determine whether a command, a dec- 
laration, or an interrogation is meant ; as, ' You W7'ite,' ' Bo you write.' 
No one can decide from tliese words whether a command, a declaration, or 
an interrogation is intended. Other known circumstances must determine 
which is meant. 

B In parsing an asserter thus used, we have only to describe it as we find 
it — saying of the asserter, that it is used in a coincidence of the command- 
ing, and the declarative, or the interrogative mode : the sense of the whole 
expression showing that a command, a declaration, or an interrogation is in- 
tended, whichever may be the fact. 
12* 



138 ETY3IOLOGV, (Asseriers. ) 

SECOND DIVISION — Participles. 

X INDEFINITE TENSE. 

Continuativeform, Loving: [Transitive] — Present Participle. 

Completive form, Loved: [Receptive* a] — Perfect Participle. 

y PRIOR- PAST — Compound Perfect Participle. 

Havinsf loved. 



RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS. 

227 Receptive asserters are formed from transitive. 

228 A transitive asserter becomes receptive in the simple 
completive foim of the Indefinite tense of the Dependent 
mode, second division, (as above.) 

229 Receptive asserters are inflected by being united with 
the intransitive asserter am or be, as an auxihar, through 
all its varieties of form ; as in the following 

INFLECTION 

OF THE REGULAR RECEPTIVE ASSERTER, lo\ied. 

230 This is exactly like the inflection of the asserter am or he, 
except that the receptive asserter, loved, is added to the asserter 
am or he. 

Declarative Mode — Indicative Mood, 
a PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. b indefinite-past — Imperfect. 

Ill 1 III ) 

S, 2 Thou I st ^2 Thou > was 1 1 



S5 3 He 1 1 M 7 , ^ 3 He 

1 We { ^^^^' . 1 We 



\ had been loved. ^ ? w <^ \ •^^^*^^^- 

1 2 You-ye I 1 2 You-ye [ were J 

I 3 They J g 3 They ) 

*A In this mode, tense, and form, the transitive asserter loses its ^?a;isi- 
iiye meaning, and assumes the receptive sense. Thus, "John loved his 
friends" — Loved^ used in the transitive sense ; showing what the subject, 
the man John, did, in relation to his friends. 

" John, loved by all his friends, enjoyed his social state." Loved, used in 
ihQ receptive sense', showing, not what John, the subject, did; but that 
something which h\s friends dXdi, was extended to him, zs the subject; 
showing that the loving was reflected back by John's friends upon him, as 
the subject. 

B The form here referred to, is that which is subjoined to the asserter am 



(Ass&-ters.) 

c PRIOR-PRESENT— P^r/ec? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



139 



j> been 
loved. 



I nave nee 

f loved. 




I ^ 

Stj 2 

|3 
. 1 



loved. 



d 

I 

Thou 

He 

We 
1 2 You-ye 
I 3 They 

Second Future, f indep. future — First Future. 

I ^ L, 1 

si) 2 




. 1 

g 2 



Thou 

He 

We 

You-ye 
They 



. . . ri 

shall I 

^ ( 
wil 1 J 



be loved. 



Mode — Formed from the Declarative. 



)■ been 
! loved? 



11 



I* 



Si) 2 

&2 '^ 



Were 



Am 
Art 
Is 



-Imperfect. 

1 



'^ Zoi;e^ ? 



Are 



. 1 

1 2 

§3 

I INDEF 
« 1 

bi) 2 t 

Uavebeen^? ^^^^^ 
1 loved? ^1 S 

1 2 Wil 1 
: 3 



INDEF. PAST- 
I 

Was t thou 
he 
we 

you-ye | 
they J 

PRESENT. 

I 1 

thou I 

he I 

we j 

you-ye ', 
they J 
FUTURE— Firsi Future. 



loved ? 



I 

thou 

he 

we 

you-ye 

they 



;>be 



loved ? 



or be, in all its variations, for the purpose of giving the various inflections of 
the receptive asserter. [See 230, p 138.] 
c All receptive asserters are inflected in one and the same manner. 



140 ETYMOLOGY. (Asserters.) 

Inferential Mode— Potential Mood. 

m PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. 



Ill ] 

& 2 Thou 
1 3 He 
^ 1 We 


St 

• might, could, would, should, or ought to have been /ovcrf. 


2 2 You-ye 
1 3 They 


III 1 
S)2 Thou 
|3 He 
^ 1 We 
1 2 You-ye 
^ 3 They ^ 


n INDEFINITE — Imperfect. 

St 

► might, could, would, should, or ought to be loved. 


PRIOR-PRESENT— Per/ecf. 


11 1 1 

^ 2 Thou 
|3 He 
. 1 We 
1 2 You-ye 
1 3 They J 


St 

. may, can, or must have been loved. 


p PRESENT. 


Ill 1 

r« 2 Thou 
|3 He 
. 1 We J 
1 2 You-ye 
g 3 They 


\ may, can, or must be loved. 


Interrogative Mode— Formed from the Inferential. 


q PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect, 


Might, could, wo 


CO 

Singular 


1 1 

2 Thou 

3 He 
1 We 


have been 


' 


' loved ? 




1 


2 You-ye 

3 They 





(Asserters.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 



141 



r INDEFINITE — Imperfect. 
1 I 



Might, could, would, or should. 



2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



s PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect, 
I I 

stf. 



May, can, or must. 



t PRESENT. 



<5t ? 



May, can, or must ^ 



2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 

1 I 

2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 
they 



1 
j 

[. be loved ? 

I 

J 



! have been 
f loved ? 



1 

I 

y be loved 

I 

J 



Commaildillg- Mode— Imperative Mood. 
[Always in the Present Tense."] 



2 Per. 



Be thou — you, or ye loved, or 
Do thou — you, or ye be loved. 



Dependent Mode. 

FIRST DIVISION — Infinitive Mood. 
V INDEFINITE — Present. 

Completive form, To be loved. 
Coiitinuative form, 



w PRIOR-PAST — Perfect. 

Completive form, To have been loved. 
Coiitinuative form, 



142 ETYMOLOGY. {Asscrters.) 

SECOND DIVISION — Participles. 
X INDEFINITE TENSE — Perfect Participle. 

Simple Completive formj Loved. 

Continuative form, Being loved. *a 

y PRIOR-PAST TENSE — Compound Perfect Participle. 
Completive form, Having been loved. 
Continuative form, 

*a This form of a receptive asserter is named the continuative, from 
the fact that when united with the asserter am or be, in the Indefinite-past, 
or the Present tense, it represents the continuance of the reception, (by 
the subject,) of what the principal asserter denotes ; as, Being built, being 
printed, &c. Tiie honse is being built. The book was being printed. 

h Being built, without some variation of the asserter am or be, united 
with it, would not denote continued reception : yet, while is built, ov being 
built, does not denote the continuance of the reception, is being built, does. 

c A recent compiler of an " English Grammar," essaying to be a little 
original, tells us that the sentence, the house "is being built," is precisely 
equivalent to, the house "is built;" meaning only that " the house is exis- 
ting, built ;" yet, ask a child eight years old, and he will tell you the differ- 
ence. Thus : "John's house was built, hutHenry's was being built, when 
I was in Utica." Any person, even the compiler himself, could not but 
perceive, from the expression, that one house was built , finished : and the 
other wnfinished, yet tending towards completion, at the time referred to. 

d The Infatuation of this compiler, in laboring to disprove, by a process 
in Logic/ zfact, clearly perceived, acknowledged, admitted, and establish- 
ed, is equalled only by the attempt of a learned professor to disprove, logi- 
cally ! to the Grand Duke, the patron of Galileo, that the stars, which 
both Galileo and the Duke, himself, had seen a hundred times, didnot^ 
could not, exist ! 

The house is building. 

■S To build, fficSRS to construct something. Is building, as here used, 
refers to, and depends on, the name house, denoting the subject of remark. 
This attaches the idea of constructing the edifice, to the house, as the con- 
structer or builder. Yet all know that the house is not building, can not 
build anything ; but that the workmen are building the house ; and if the 
workmen are building the house, the house, itself, is not building, but bci7ig 
built ; that is, the component parts of the edifice, (whose combination is 
anticipated by the use of the name house,) are now undergoing the process 
of arrangement and union. The house is being built. 

f Built, asserts the reception, by the liouse, of the act of building, per- 
formed by the workmen. Being,\the continuative form of a^n or 6<?,) pre- 
fixed to built, makes the combination of words denote the continued recep- 
tion of the act of building. 7s, denotes present time : and, prefixed to be- 
ing built, and referring to, and depending on, the name house, makes the 
whole sentence denote the present ^coniinuance ^oi the reception Od^by 
the house of the act of building performed by the workmen ; which fact 
represents the asserter, as it is said to be, in the continuative form of the re- 
eeptive asserter in the present tense. 

g To say, " The house is built," would denote that the house has been 



{Jlsserters.) etymology. 143 

IJVFLE CTIO N 

OF THE IRREGULAR TRANSITIVE ASSERTER, wHte. 

Declarative Mode — Indicative Mood, 
a PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. b indefinite-past — Imperfect. 

« 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 

g, 2 Thou I . . St g. 2 Thoa | . . . st 

^ , it, y had written, ^ , f!f ;> w;rofe. 

-^ 1 We ( ^. 1 We ( 

I 2 YoLi-ye | | 2 You-ye I 

^ 3 They J ^ 3 They J 

c PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect, d present. 

Ill ha ve ] III ] 

g) 2 Thou ha St V 1, 2 Thou \ . . . st 



^ T n^T- . < written}^ ^ ^,7. < it^i^e. 

^- 1 We ] ] ^ 1 We ^ 

^ 2 You-ye Wm ve ^ ^2 You-ye \ 

H: 3 They J J ^3 They J 

finished, and is, now, complete. While to say, "The house is being built," 
would be to represent the house, as in a state, now incomplete, but tending 
towards conipletion. 

h To show the utter absurdity of the principles and practice which the old 
theorists, (excepting Wright,) approve and advocate, let a few other exam- 
ples be given ; as, ' the apples were eating/' [being eaten.] ' The men Vjere 
killing' [being killed] ' at their guns.' ' The steam ship was constructing' 
[being constructed .] ' The wood tvas stealing !' [being stolen.] 'The wa- 
ter t«as drinking!' [being drank.] 'The grain was devouring !' [being &c.] 

i These authors tell us that " every active verb, [transitive asserter,] 
has a corresponding passive verb," [receptive asserter,] yet they tell us that 
*'the transitive form is used in the passive, [receptive,] sense." Let us see: 
Ths boys were eating the oranores : 
The oranges were eating ! [What .?] 

j We should not use, in the continuative form, asserters, which, in the 
primar)' form, indicate the continuance or progression of the facts denoted 
by them — [except that they may be used in the Indefinite tense of the De- 
pendent mode, Second Division ; as, loving, being loved."] Thus, we should 
not say, ' I was loving my parents. I am esteeming my friends ;' or, 'My 
parents were being loved; My friends are being esteemed;' but should use 
the ordinary form ; as, I loved my parents — I esteem my friends — My pa- 
rents were loved — My friends are esteemed. 

k The asserters own z.xid possess, as, also, regard, respect, zxidi some oth- 
ers expressing emotion, are examples of asserters which it would be improp- 
er to use in the continuative form, except in the Dependent mode, as men- 
tioned above. 

I Receptive zsiertevs, expressing emotions, are never to be inflected in the 
continuative form ; as, was being loved, hated, Sfc. 



144 


ETYMOLOGY. 


{Assert ers.) 


e PRIOR-FUTURE — Sccond Future, f indef. future — First Future. 


Ill 1 III 1 

g, 2 Thou \ t] ^2 Thou } t ] 

1 3 He J shall! have -J 3 'He J shall 

2l We 1 R \writtenZl We ] R }''''''' 


1 2 You-ye y wil 1 J i 2 You-ye } wil 1 
c: 3 They J R^ 3 They 


lilterrogative Mode — Formed from the Declarative. 


g PB.10R-F AST— Pluperfect. h indef. vast— Imperfect. 


h 1 

l2 St 


I 1 |1 

thou 1 1,2 St 


I 1 

thou 1 


^ ? Had 


^^^ [writtenl'^ ^ Did 
we I ^1 


^^ I wnte?- 
we ( 


|2 

r: 3 


you-ye [ ^ 2 
they J r; 3 


you-ye 
they 


i PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect. j present. 


« 1 ve 


11 1 1 11 


I2 St 


thou 1 1,2 st thou 


^?Ha^ 

-^- 1 ve 


h^ ^wrUten?^'^,^'''^' [write? 
we r ^ I fwe f 


§2 ve 
«: 3 ve 


you-ye | 2 Do { you-ye [ 

they J r; 3 [ they J 


k prior-future— iS^econti Future. I indef. future— i^tVs^ Future. 


^ 1 

I2 t 


I 1 11 

thou j ^ 2 / 


11 1 

thou I 


1 3 Shall 
-^ 1 ^ 


he have | 3 Shall 
we \ written?^ 1 ? 


we [-^-'^ 


1 2 Wil I 

s; 3 


you-ye 1 i 2 Wil 1 
they J S; 3 


you-ye j 
they J 



^ 1 

I 2 

t 2 

s;3 



Inferential Mode — Potential Mood, 

m pRiOR-pAST — Plupeifect. 
I 

Thou 



He 
We 
You-ye | 

They J 



st 



( might, could, would, should, or ought to have written. 



{Asserters.) 



1 I 



^ 



2 Thou 
^ 3 He 

-^ 1 We 
^ 2 You-ye 
ft; 3 They 



ETYMOLOGY. 

n INDEFINITE — Imperfect. 
St 



145 



might, could, would, should, or ought to write. 



o PRIOR-PHESENT — Perfect. 



1 I 



.r 


2 Thou 


^ 


3 He 


^ 


1 We 


53 


2 You-ye 


G; 


3 They 




1 I 


.1 


2 Thou 


^ 


3 He 


t"** 


1 We 


1 


2 You-ye 

3 They 



St 



may, can, or must have written. 



p PRESENT. 



St 



may, can, or must write. 



Interrogative Mode— Fomcf? from the Inferential 



q PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. 



St 



Might, could, would, or should, 






1 I 

2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



r INDEFINITE — Imperfect. 



St 



Might, could, would, or should. 



13 



1 I 

2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you- 

3 they 



have 
written ? 



ye > 



write ? 



146 



ETYMOLOGY. 



(Asserters.) 



s PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect. 
1 I 



May, can, or must,< 



May, can, or must 



St r 



t PRESENT. 



St 



2? 



2 thou 

3 he 

1 we 

2 you-ye 

3 they 



have 
written 7 




write ? 



Commanding Mode— Imperative Mood. 
[Always in the Present Tense."] 

w p p J Write thou — you, or ye, or 
\ Do thou — you, or ye write. 



Dependent Mode. 

FIRST DIVISION — Infinitive Mood. 
V INDEFINITE — Present. 
Completive form. To write. 

Continuative form. To be writing. 

w PRIOR-PAST — Perfect. 

To have written. 

To have been writing. 

SECOND DIVISION — Participks. 

X INDEFINITE TENSE. 



Completive form, 
Continuative form. 



Simple Completive form, Written. 

Simple Continuative form. Writing. 



Perfect Participle. 
Present Participle. 



y PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

Completive form. Having written. Compound Perf. Particip. 
Continuative form, Having been writing. 



{Asserters.) etymology. 147 

Continuative Form of Receptive Asserters, 

231 Receptive Asserters of the continuative form are made and 
inflected by the union of the continuative form of the indefinite 
tense of the dependent mode, with the asserter am or he. 

232 The continuative form of receptive asserters may be used 
only in the indefinite tense of the dependent mode, second divis- 
ion, (see preceding page,) the indefinite-past and the present of 
the declarative mode, and the interrogative formed from the declar- 
rative.* 

INFLECTION 

OF THE CONTINUATIVE FORM OF THE RECEPTIVE ASSERTER, buUt. 

Declarative Mode — Indicative Mood, 
a INDEFINITE-PAST — Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

The house was being built. The houses were being built. 

b PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural 

The house is being built. The houses are being built. 

Interrogative Mode—formed from the Declarative, 
c INDEFINITE-PAST — Imperfect. 
Singular. Plural. 

Was the house being built ? Were the houses being built ? 

d PRESENT. 

Singular. Plural. 

Is the house being built? Are the houses being built?^ 



INFL.ECTION 

OF THE CONTINUATIVE FORM OF INTRANSITIVE OR TRANSITIVE 
ASSERTERS. 

233 The continuative form of a transitive asserter or any in- 
transitive one, except am or 6e, is inflected by annexing to amor 
he, in its variations, the simple continuative form, as exhibited in 
the third column of the tables which follow the inflections : thus, 

*See note letter /, p 143. fSee note *a, p 142. 



148 ETYMOLOGY. {Asscrters.} 

Declarative Mode— Indicative Mood. 

a PRIOR-PAST — Plvperfect. 
Singular. 
I had been writing ^ Thou hadst been writing. 

b INDEFINITE-PAST — Imperfect. 
Singular. 
I was writing^ Thou wast writing. 

234 This may be inflected through all the modes and tenses. — 
[See note /, p 143.] 

^^235 Receptive asserters may, according to their meaning,, 
be formed by union with a relative, and inflected through the dif- 
ferent modes and tenses ; as, 

I had been spoken to. I was spoken to. I have been spoken to. 



IKFL.ECTIO¥ 

OF THE CONTINUATIVE FORM OF RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS. 

Declarative Mode — Indicative Mood. 
a PRIOR-PAST — Pluperfect. 
The letter had been written. I had been written to. 

h INDEFINITE PAST — Imperfect. 
The letter was written. I was written to. 

c PRIOR-PRESENT — Perfect. 
The letter has been written. I have BEENiunVfcw fo, &c. &c.*(S 

236 This may be carried out in relation to all the modes and 
tenses, according to the intention of the speaker or writer. 

237 Other receptive asserters, according to their meaning, may 
be formed and inflected in the same manner ; as, 

I spoke to James. James was spoken to. I spoke of James. James 

*a The asserters, had been written, was written, and has been written^ 
represent the fact denoted b_y the asserters, as received by the letter as the 
subject, according to the first part of the definition of the receptive asser- 
ter. [See the definition, number 180, p 102, and the numbers from XXVI 
to XXIX, pp 33 and 34.] 

b The asserters, had been written to, was written to, and have been writ-, 
ten /o, represent the fact denoted by the asserters, as being extended to laey 
as the subject of remark, according to the second part of the definition of 
the receptive asserter. [See the sgime references as above. J 



{Asserters.) etymology. 149 

was spoken of. I heard of James. James was heard of. I paid for the 
books. The books ivere paid for. f a 

fA jR^cejD^i'ye asserters often have the self-same form as the transitive 
asserters, and may have the same dependence. In such coincidence of form 
and dependence, the sense of the sentence must determine the meaning of 
the asserters ; and then the asserters must be named according to what they 
mean. Thus, 



J , ( injured William ; but he made full reparation. 

I injured by William, freely forgave him the wrong. 



c Read the name John with the line in the upper part of the brace, and 
the sense of the piece shows the asserter, injured, to be transitive, from its 
representing the fact of tlie subject, the man John, as affecting an object^ 
the man ffVliam. 

D Read the name John with the line in the lower part of the brace, and 
the sense of the piece shows the asserter, injured, (in the same form and de- 
pendence,) to have a different meaning, and that meaning makes the asser- 
ter receptive. It represents the man John, the subject, as receiving, (not 
doing,) the fact denoted by the asserter. It may stand more plain thus : 



E 



J , . . , ( William ; but he made full reparation. 

^ by William, freely forgave him the wrong. 



F Here the same asserter, injured, used with the sajyie name, John, is 
found to be transitive in its meaning, when read with the line in the upper 
part of the brace ; and receptive in its meaning, when read with the line 
in the lower part of the brace. 

G An asserter may be used, Intransitively, Transitively, and Receptive- 
ly, in the same form and dependence, according to the meaning of the as- 
serter. Thus, 

1 John sunk to the bottom of the river — Intransitive in meaning. 

2 John sunk the boat by putting stones into it — Transitive in meaning. 
S John, sunk to the bottom of the river, by the weight of his burden, 

disengaged himself from his load, rose to the surface, wasseized and taken 
ashore — Receptive in meaning : Or thus, 

r 1 to the bottom of the river, Intransitive. 

H John sunk 7 2 the boat to the bottom of the river, Transitive. 

(3 by his burden, to the bottom, disentangled ) D ,. 

himself, rose, and was saved, ) ^^^"^ *^^* 

1 . 1 Here, * John sunk,' read with the first line, is seen to be Intransitive ; 
showing only what John, the subject did ; without representing the action 
of the subject as affecting an object, or as extending to the object. 

2 *' John sunk," read with the second line in the brace, is seen to be 
2>ans27iue ,• showing what the man /o/m, the subject, did to the object, 
the boat. He sunk the boat — caused the boat to sink. 

3 " John, sunk,'' read with the third line in the brace, is seen to be Re- 
ceptive ; representing the man John, the subject^ as receiving the fact of 

13* 



150 ETYMOLoGt. (Asiefiefs.'j 

{jf^238 Intransitive asserters may be inflected by the union of 
the simple completive form with ajii or be : as, 

The edifice is decayed. *' How are the mighty fallen !"* 

{j(^239 All principal asserters, intransitive or transitive, have 
the simple completive form in all the prior tenses, whatever the 
mode. 

{^240 All except am or 5e, have the primary forin, (whatev- 
er the auxiliar,) in all other tenses| — except the indefinite of the 
dependent mode, second division. 

^t^241 In the present tense of the declarative mode, and the 
interrogative formed from it, the substitute thou requires the sub- 
jective termination st to be added to the primary form of its asser- 
ter, ending in e, and est to the primary not ending in e ; as. 



sinking, done by the burden ; as it was the burden which sunk John — John 
was sunk — (caused to go dov\n, by the weight of the burden.) 

J Asserters, which are used in all three of these characters, are those' 
which were originally Intransitive^ but have been made, by late usage, to 
assume a transitive meaning. [See note * p 32.] 

K The asserter sunk^ is here selected and used only that the three dif-^ 
ferent characteristics of asserters may be brought out and found exhibited 
in one word. 

li For critical remarks on the distinctions of asserters, as Intransitive, 
Transitive, and Receptive, read the numbers from XX to XXX, of the 
Lecture, both numbers inclusive. 



*a Denoting a state into which they have come and now remain. It should 
be used only vv^hen the clearness of the expression requires it : otherwise 
the auxiliar have and its variations should be used to inflect the asserter. 

E X AMPLES : 

" The wall has fallen.^* This would not indicate, with certainty, that 
the wall is (now) down : for it might have been rebuilt ; but when I say 
the wall is fallen, the expression clearly indicates that the wall has fallen, 
and is now prostrate. 

" The wall Aat?/«^Zen. when I arrived.*' This would not indicate but 
that the wall might have fallen and been re-built, at the time mentioned : 
yet, let the expression stand, " The wall was fallen when 1 arrived," and 
it would indicate, clearly, that the wall, (so named,) was prostrate at the 
time mentioned — was, then, in the state into which it had come by a previ- 
ous action. 

h It is better to employ adnames than to sacrifice elegance ; as, "the wall 
had been ^ros^ra^e several days when I arrived"; rather than, "The wall 
had been fallen several days," &c. which would be a very awkward ex- 
pression. 

\A.m or hCy has Je, in these tenses. 



(Asseriers.) etymology. 151 

Thou love-5^; Thou wa.\k-esf ;* Thou vviit-es^ ; except when inconsis- 
tent with ease or elegance, in which case the primary form should be used, 
preceded by dost. 

^1^242 In the indefinite-past tense, thou requires st to be ad- 
ded to the termination d, of regular asserters, and to the form giv- 
en in the second column of irregular asserters ; as, 

Thou \ov-edst ; Thou walk-ed*/; Thou wrot-e5^ .- except when inconsis- 
tent with ease or elegance, in which case the primary form should be used 
preceded by didst. 

243 To inflect irregular asserters, the pupil has only to observe 
their different forms in the following table, to follow the foregoing 
directions, and to inflect them, in other respects, like the regular 
asserters. f 

244 The asserters in the following table, marked with the cap- 
ital letter R, are inflected regularly as well as irregularly. 

245 Those marked with the small letter r, formerly had the 
regular^ but now have only the irregular inflection. 

246 Of those marked with the letter n^ the simple Comple- 
tive form is w-ot used without an auxiliar. 

247 To inflect an intransitive or a transitive asserter in the con-* 
tinuative form, join the simple continuative, as given in the fol- 
lowing examples and tables, to the variations of am or be. Am 
or be, as a principal asserter, is not inflected in the continuative 
form in the different modes and tenses. 



248 EXAMPLES OF REGULAR ASSERTERS. 

Indefinite-past Simple Contin- Simple Complex 



Primary form. 


Tense. 


native form. 


live form. 


Love 


\ov-ed 


\ov-ing 


\oy-ed 


Hate 


hdit-ed 


hat-iw^r 


hdit-ed 


Walk 


walk-ec? 


walk-iK^ 


walk-crf 


Respect 


resipeci-ed 


respect-i/j^ 


respect-e(i 


Esteem 


esteem-ed 


esteem-iw^ 


esteem-ed 


Divide 


d\v'id-ed 


div'id-ing 


divid-erf 


Assert 


assert-edZ 


disseri-ing 


assert-ec? 



*This is not applicable to am or be. 
page 130. 



See the forms of this as given on 



fThe pupil should be exercised in the following table, till he can, with- 
out difficulty, inflect each asserter in it. Let the teacher name the asserter* 
in the primary form, and let the learner give its inflections. 



152 ETYMOLOGY. {Asserfers.) 

249 TABLE OF THE IRREGULAR ASSERTERS OF THE LAN- 
GUAGE. 



Primary 



form. 


Tense. 


Abide 


abode 


Am 


was 


Arise 


arose 


Awake 


awoke 


"Rpar '"brln^ forth 


bore, bear 


Bear, to carry 


bore 


Beat 


beat 


Beget 


begotj 


Begin 


began 


Bend 


bent 


Bereave R 


bereft 


Beseech 


besought 


Bid 


bid, bade 


Bind 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


Bleed 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


Break 


broke 


Breed 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


Build 


built 


Burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


Become 


became 


Behold 


beheld 


Cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught 


Choose 


chose 


Cleave, to adhere. 


clave R 


Cleave, to split 


' cleft, or clove 


Cling 


clung 



Indefinite-past Simple Contin- 
~ native form. 

abiding 
beinff 



arising 
awaking 
bearing 
bearln 



beating 

begetting 

beginning 

bending 

bereaving 

beseeching 

bidding 

binding 

biting 

bleeding 

blowing 

breaking 

breeding 

bringing 

building 

bursting 

buying 

becoming 

beholding 

casting 

catching 

choosing 

cleaving 

cleaving 

clinffinff 



■ Simple Comple- 
tive form. 

abode n 

been* n 

arisen, arose 

awakened awoke 

borne, "f born 

borne 

beaten, beat 

begotten 

begun 

bent 

bereft 

besought 

bidden, bid 

bound 

bitten, bit 

bled 

blown 

broken, broke 

bred 

brought 

built 

burst 

bought 

become n 

beheld 

cast 

caught 

chosen, chose 

cleaved 

cleft, cloven 

dun or n 



*The principal asserter been, may be used with an auxiliar, to express 
the action of travelling to a place, and departing from it ; as, John has been 
to New York since Henry returned. It is used in the sense of gone and 
left. Thus, • James has gone to New York,' indicates only the act of his 
going to the city — but, ' James has been to New York,' indicates that he 
has gone to New York and left the city. [Let the student remember this.] 

\Borne is used in the transitive asserter, and bom in the receptive. 

JOld style, begat. 



(Asserters.) 


ETYMOLOGY. 


153 


Pnmary 


Indefinite-past Simple Contin- Simple Comple- 


foim. 


Tense. 


native form. 


tive form. 


Clothe R 


clothed 


clothing 


clad 


Come 


came 


coming 


come 


Cost 


cost 


costing 


cost n 


Crow R 


crew 


crowmg 


crowed n 


Creep 


crept 


creeping 


crept n 


Cut 


cut 


cutting 


cut 


'DdiXQ, to venture durst, or dared 


1 daring 


dared n 


r>are, -^^^H-- 








Deal 


dealt 


dealing 


dealt 


Dig/- 


dug 


digging 


dug 


Do 


did 


doing 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawing 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driving 


driven, drove 


Drink 


drank 


drinking 


drank 


Dwell 


dwelt 


dwelling 


dwelt n 


Dream R 


dreamt 


dreaming 


dreamt 


DropR 


dropt 


dropping 


dropt 


Eat 


ate 


eating 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


falling 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


feeding 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


feeling 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fighting 


fought 


Find 


found 


finding 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fleeing 


fled n 


^1^"^ 


flung 


flinging 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flying 


flown n 


Forget 


forgot 


forgetting 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaking 


forsaken, forsook 


Freeze 


froze 


freezing 


frozen, froze 


Forbear 


forbore 


forbearing 


forborne 


GildR 


gilt 


gilding 


gilt 


Get 


got 


getting 


got 


GirdR 


girt 


girding 


girt 


Give 


gave 


giving 


given 


Go 


went 


going 


gone 


Grave R 


graved 


graving 


graven 


Grind 


ground 


grinding 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


growing 


grown 


Have 


had 


having 


had 


Hang T 


hung 


hanging 


hung 


Hear 


heard 


hearing 


heard 



154 


ETYMOLOGY. 


{Asserfers.j 


Primary 


Indefinite-past Simple Contin 


- Simple Comple- 


form. 


Tense. 


uatim form. 


tive form. 


Hew 


hewed 


hewing 


hewn 


Hide 


hid 


hiding 


hidden, or hid 


Hit 


' hit 


hitting 


hit 


Hold 


held 


holding 


held 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurting 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


keeping 


kept 


Knitr 


knit 


knitting 


knit 


Know- 


knew 


knowing 


known 


Kneel 


knelt 


kneeling 


knelt 


Lay* 


laid 


laying 


laid 


Lead 


led 


leading 


led 


Leave 


left 


leaving 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lending 


lent 


Let 


let 


letting 


let 


Lie,;oKe<?OM?n|lay 


lying 


lain 


Load R 


loaded 


loading 


laden 


Lose 


lost 


losing 


lost 


Light 


lighted, or lit 


lighting 


lighted, or lit 


Make 


made 


making 


made 


Meet 


met 


meeting 


met 


MowR 


mowed 


mowmg 


mown 


Mean 


meant 


meaning 


meant 


Pay 


paid 


paying 


paid 


Put 


put 


putting 


put 


Quitr 


quit 


quitting 


quit 


Read 


read 


reading 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rending 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


ridding 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


riding 


rode 


Ring 


rang, or rung 


ringing 


rung 


Rise 


rose 


rising 


risen, rose 


Rive R 


rived 


riving 


riven 


Run 


ran 


running 


run 


SawR 


sawed 


sawing 


sawn 


Say 


said 


saying 


said 


See 


saw 


seeing 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


seeking 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


selling 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sending 


sent 


♦Transitive. 


flntransitive. 



{Asserters.) 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Primary 


Indefinite-past Simple 


form. 


Tense. 


native f 


Set* 


set 


setting 


Shake 


shook 


shaking 


Shape 


shaped 


shaping 


Shave R 


shaved 


shaving 


Shear R 


sheared 


shearing 


Shed 


shed 


shedding 


Shine 


shone 


shining 


Show 


showed 


showing 


Shoe 


shod 


shoeing 


Shoot 


shot 


shooting 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrinking 


Shred 


shred 


shredding 


Shut 


shut 


shutting 


Sing 


sung, sang 


singing 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sinking 


Sit* 


sat 


sitting 


§I^y 


slew 


slaying 


Sleep 


slept 
slid 


sleeping 


Slide 


sliding 


Sling 


slung 


slinging 


Slink 


slunk 


slinking 


Slit 


slit 


slitting 


Smite 


smote 


smiting 


SowR 


sowed 


sowing 


Speak 


spoke, spake 


speaking 


Speed 


sped 


speeding 


Spend 


spent 


spending 


Spill R 


spilt 


spilling 


Spin 


spun 


spinning 


Spit 


spit 


spitting 


Split 


spilt 


splitting 


Spread 


spread 


spreading 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


springing 


Stand 


stood 


standing 


Steal 


stole 


stealing 


Stick 


stuck 


sticking 


Sting 


stung 


stinging 


Stink 


stunk 


stinking 


Stride 


strode 


striding 



155 



tiveform, 
set 

shaken, shook 
shaped, shapen 
shaven 
shorn 
shed 
shone 
shown 
shod 
shot 
shrunk 
shred 
shut 
sung 
sunk 
sat n 
slain 
slept n 
slid, slidden 
slung 
slunk 
slit 

smitten, smote 
sown 

spoken, spoke 
sped n 
spent 
spilt 
spun 
spit 
split 
spread 
sprung 
stood n 
stolen, stole 
stuck 
stung 
stunk n 
strode 



*Set, transitive ; sit, intransitive. 



156 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Primary 


Indefinite-past Simple Contin 


form. 


Tense. 


native form. 


Strike 


struck 


striking 


String 


strung 


stringing 


Strive 


strove 


striving 


Strow 


strowed 


strowing 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweating 


Swear 


swore 


swearing 


Swell R 


swelled 


swelHng 


Swim 


swam, swum 


swimming 


Swing 


swung 


swinging 


Take* 


took 


taking 


Teach 


taught 


teaching 


Tear 


tore 


tearing 


Tell 


told 


telling 


Think 


thought 


thinking 


Thrive R 


throve 


thriving 


Throw 


threw 


throwing - 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrusting 


Tread 


trodf 


treading 


Wear 


wore 


wearing 


Weave 


wove 


weaving 


Wet 


wetja 


wetting 


Weep 


wept 


weeping 


Win 


won 


winning 


Wind 


wound 


winding 


WorkR 


wrought 


working . 


Wring 


wrung 


wringing 


Write 


wrote 


writing 



(Jlsserters.) 

- Simple Comple- 
tive form. 

struck 

strung 

strove 

strown 

sweat 

sworn 

swollen 

swum w 

swung 

taken, took 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought n 

throve n 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden, trod 

worn 

woven, wove 

wet 

wept 

won 

wound 

wrought 

wrung 

written wrote§A 



*Simple asserters which undergo the same changes withpreficceSf as with- 
out them, are not given with the prefixes in this table ; as, 

Take, took, takings taken. 

Par 1 

Over f^^^® — ^°°^ — taking — taken. 

Under J 

[The parts included in the brace are called prefixes, because prefixed to 
the main word.] 

^ Trade is sometimes used in the grave style. 

Xa The following asserters are used, respectively, in a coincidence of the 
present tense, and the indefinite past of the Declarative mode, and the In- 

[For §A see next page.} 



{Asserters.) etymology. 157 

250 I. Let the pupil remember that in parsing a substitute as- 
serter, he has only to describe it as such, to name its mode and 
tense, and to tell what is its relation to the sentence, and what 
its dependence on its subjective word. 

II. The distinctions of transitive, intransitive, and receptive, 
and the distinctions of form, are not to be applied to substitute as- 
serters. 

LIST OF DEFECTIVE ASSERTERS. 

Trow, Quoth, Wot, Beware, Wist. 

USE OF DEFECTIVE ASSERTERS. 

251 I. Beware may be used, without change in the principal 
asserter, in the indefinite-future tense of the Declarative mode, in 
the indefinite tense and the present, of the Inferential mode,* in 
the Commanding mode, and the indefinite tense of the Dependent 
mode, first division. 

II. It should never be used in the continuative form. 

252 I. Quoth may be used, without change, in the indefinite- 
past tense of the Declarative mode, referring to a word of the 
third person. 

II. It should always precede its subjective word. 

253 The other defective asserters should never be used, except 
in the comic style. 

terrogative formed from it — other words determining the distinctions of 
time — 

Beat, bid, burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, knit, let, put, rid, run, set, shed, 
shred, sliut, sit, slit, spit, split, spread, sweat, thrust, wet. 

b To parse these asserters in such circumstances, we have only to describe 
them as we find them, as used in a coincidence of the two tenses. 

§A Some irregular asserters have, it is seen, one syllable more in the 4th 
column, than in the 2d. The form of these asserters, given in the 2d col- 
umn, may be used with an auxiliar whenever the use of the form in the 
2d column would aid the euphony or strength of the expression ; as, " He 
had b7-oke into the midst of the phalanx, and dispersed it ;" instead of, " he 
had broken into the midst," &c. 

B This form is preferable to the other when it is to be followed, immedi- 
ately, by several wwemphatic words, or by several Mwaccented syllables of 
the next word. 



*This includes also the Interrogative mode, formed from these two. 
14 



15«8 ETYMOLOGY. {Asserters.), 

Questions on Asseriers. 

What is an asserter ? see 173. Give examples. What are the primary 
distinctions of asserters ? 174, 1. What is a principal asserter ? 175. Ex- 
amples. What is an auxiliar asserter ? 176. Ex&mples. What is the dif- 
ference between a principal and an auxiliar asserter ? Notes b and c, p 100. 
What is a substitute asserter ? 177. Examples. What is meant by can, as 
used with the n&me Henry 'I For how many words is it substituted ? let- 
ter b. Give and explain the examples in letters c, d^ and e. 



II. 



SECONDARY DISTINCTIONS. 



What are the secondary distinctions of asserters ? 174, II. What is the 
intransitive asserter 7 178, I ; 178, II. See, also, XX, XXI, XXII, XXIII, 
of the Lecture. What are the two characteristics, either of which makes an 
asserter intransitive ? XXII of the Lecture. What is a transitive asser- 
ter 1 179. What are the two characteristics, either of which makes an as- 
serter transitive ? see, also, XXIII, XXIV, of the Lecture. What is a re- 
ceptive asserter 1 180. What are the two characteristics, either of which 
makes an asserter receptive ? XXVI of the Lecture. 

III. DISTINCTIONS OF MODE. 

What is mode? 181. What are the limitations with respect to mode ? 
182. What is the declarative mode ? 183. What is the inferential mode ? 
184. What does this mode never do 1 see the last part of the definition , 184, 
What is the interrogative mode 1 185. What is the commanding mode ? 
186. What is the dependent mode ? 187. How may an asserter be used 
in the commanding or the dependent mode ? 188. How many principal 
branches are there in mode ? see ' Tree of Modes,' p 103. Which is the 
fiirst branch ? I. Find tliis branch in the Tree, p 104. Which is the sec- 
ond branch ? II, p 103. Find this branch in the Tree, p 104. What other 
mode springs from each of these two .'' (pd^p 103. Find this mode in the 
two places in the Tree, p 104. What is the third principal branch ? Ill, p 
103. Find this in the Tree. Why is the dependent mode so named ? See 
the last line of p 103. Find this mode mfive [)laces in the Tree. 

What does an asserter in the dependent mode never do ? Contrast of 
the modes, a Qcf^, p 105. What can not the inferential mode of using an 
assprter do 1 (]c|= p 105. What can not the declarative mode do 1 letter c, 
p 105. What else ci-n not this mode do ? d. What can not the interroga- 
tive mode do ? o. What else can not this mode do ? p. What can not 
the commanding mode do } jv. What else can not this mode do ? a-. By 
what two traits can the dependentmode be distinguished ? ccand dd. Give 
examples of each. On which three parts of speech may an asserter in the 
dependent mode depend ? What is taught by ff? by gg ? What are the di- 
rections to the teacher for enabling the pupil to distinguish the different 
modes. Read from ii to II 4, inclusive. Are modes ever used in sentences 
differing in character from what the namesof the respective modes indicate? 
189. In which mode is the asserter is, letters ff, b? will can-y, m the diagram 
letter c? had gone, in diagram d ? could write, in letter e? May read, andi 
the second shall go, letter/? the asserter go, letter g 1 the asserter let, ia 
the four examples in letter h? On which modes may the dependent depend ? 
i. How are the various uses of the same modes illustrated ? J. What ia 
taught under the bead, <« Subjunctive Mood," p 114.? 



(J-sserters.) etymology. 159 

IV. DISTINCTIONS OF TENSE. 

What is tense ? 190. In determining the sense of an asserter, how 
only are we to consider it ? 191. How are the tenses to be used? 192. 
What is the prior-past tense 1 193; the indefinite-past ? 194; the prior pres- 
ent ? 195; the present? 196; the prior-future ? 197; the indefinite-future ? 
198; the indefinite tense 1- 199. In what tense is had written, on the first 
step of the diagram, p 116 ? called, on the second step 1 have written, on 
the third step? ivrite, and aju writing, on the fourth step ? shall have writ- 
ten, on the fifth step ? will call, on the last step ? 

What is taught by letter a, in the contrast of modes ? hy b ? hy c? 
by d, 1 and 2 ? by e, 1 and 2 ? by/, 1 and 2} by g? h? Why is not would 
assist in a past tense ? Why not in the present ? Why not in a future tense? 
See the different parts of letter i. What is taught by letter j, p 119, con- 
cerning rwn, to ivrite, tvriting, and written? In which tense are they ? — 
In which tense is may go ? letters /, and m. In which tense is may rain ? 
letter n. See letters o, p. In which tense is 7Jiust die? letters §', r, 5 
— the asserter go ? [^ John; go ho7Jie,'] letters t, u, v. Whatdirectionsare 
given to the teacher ? letters w, x, y, z, aa, hb, cc, dd. How are tenses 
often used ? 200. What is the effect of the word t/, on the prior-past tense? 
h, c. What on the indefinite past ? d. On the present ? e. What is said 
of when ? letter /—of till ? g — of before ? h. How is the indefinite-past 
tense sometimes used ? i,j — the indefinite future ? k, I. 

V. DISTINCTIONS OF FORM. 

What is the primary form ? 201. What does a regular asserter do ? 202 
— an irregular asserter ? 203 — a defective asserter ? 204. What is the sin- 
gular form of an asserter ? 205 — the plural form .'' 206 — the common form 1 
207. Is there generally a difference ? note f p 125. What other names 
have the forms of asserters ? 208. What does the completive form do ? 
209 — the continuative form ? 210. How many forms has a principal asser- 
ter, in all the prior tenses ? [orze] letters a and d, of the diagram of modes 
and tenses. How many forms has a principal asserter in the other tenses 
of this mode ? [one} b and c. What is the difference between the declar- 
ative mode and the interrogative formed from it ? c. What is the differ- 
ence between the mferential mode and the interrogative formed from it ? A, 
1,2,3. Vih^it is sdiid of ought to, h, 4. How many auxiliars and how many 
forms of the principal has the receptive asserter in the commanding mode ? 
How many has any other asserter ? letters ;' and k. Give the examples in 
each division of the dependent mode. What are subjective terminations ? 
211. What is said in 212 ? What are the auxiliar asserters ? 213. What 
is said in 214 ? 215 ? 216 ? 217 ? 218 ? 219 ? 220 ? 221 ? 222 ? 

VI. INFLECTION OF Am OR Bc 

What form has the asserter in the prior-past tense ? letter a,p 129. What 
forms in the indefinite past ? b. What is taught by note f ? by | ? by § ? 
What change has the auxiliar in the prior-past tense ? a. The prior-present? 
c. How many forms has the principal in the present tense ? d. How 
many in the prior-future tense ? e. How many in the indefinite-future ?/. 
What change has the auxiliars in these two tenses ? What is the difference 
between the declarative mode, and the interrogative formed from it ? let- 
ter c, p 126. Between the inferential and the interrogative formed from it? 
letter h, 1, 2, 3, 4, p 127. In which tense is always an asserter in the com- 
manding mode ? JElave tha singular and plural subjective words different 



160 ETYMOLOGY. {Asscrters.} 

forms of the asserter in this mode ? 223. Does an asserter in this mode ever 
depend on a subjective word of the third person 1 note f p 132. Give ex- 
amples. How many forms of the principal asserter do you find in this 
mode ? u. Why is the first division of the dependent mode so named ? 225. 
Why is the second named as it is ? 226. How many forms has the principal 
asserter in the first division ? v, w. How many in the second? x,y. How 
many forms are found in the entire inflection of am or be ? [Been, was, mast, 
were, am, art, is, are, be, and being.'] 

VII. INFLECTION OF REGULAR ASSERTERS, (lOVE, &C,) 

What form has a regular principal asserter in the prior tenses ? See all 
the jorior tenses of the regular asserter, love. [One form.] What other 
form has the principal asserter love in the dependent mode, second division, 
indefinite tense ? How many forms has the regular principal asserter love? 
[Three ; love, loved, loving, besides the subjective terminations which thou 
requires.] In what coincidence of mode are asserters used with the subjec- 
tive words you and ye ? note fA. How are asserters thus used, to be pars- 
ed ? letter b, p 137. In which mode and tense does a transitive asserter 
lose its transitive sense, and assume a receptive meaning 1 cc,p 138. How 
many forms has the principal receptive asserter ? b, p 138. [OCI=No prin- 
cipal receptive asserter has more than one form.] What is taught in |a, con- 
cerning the " Subjunctive Mood" ? 134. What in letter b? in c ? in d? 
in e ? What is siid of the continuative form of the receptive asserter 1 *a, 
142. What does is built not do ? What does being built, alone, not do ? 
What does is being built denote ? b. What is said of a recent compiler ? 
c. Of his infatuation ? d. What is taught hy e? f? g ? h? i? j ? k? I ? 

VII. INFLECTION OF IRREGULAR ASSERTERRS, (wRITE, &C,) 

How many forms has the principal asserter write, besides the subjective 
terminations ? [Four r written, wrote, write, writing.'] See the inflection of 
this asserter, p 143. How are receptive asserters of the continuative form 
made and inflected ? 231. In which modes and tenses may they be used ? 
232. Give examples— a, b, c, d. What is taught by 233 ? What is said 
of these inflections in 234 .' What is taught by 235, of receptive asserters, 
by the union of the word to with the asserter ? Give examples, a, b, c. 
What is said in 236 ? 237 ? What is said in note *a ? in b? What is 
taught by fA, p 149 ? b ? c ? d ? e ? f ? g ? h ? i .? j ? k ? l .? What 
is taught by 238 ? 239 ? 240 ? 241 ? by note *a, p 150 ? hy b ? by 242 ? 
243? 244*? 245? 246? 247? Give examples : 248 Give all the colum- 
nar inflections : [inflections in the columns, pp 151-2-3-4-5-6.] What is said 
of been ? * p 152. What is taught by * p 156 ? by Xa 2 bv b 7 by §a ? 
by b, p 157 ? What is taught by 250 ? 251 ? 252 ? 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



[The following exercises are intended for '\\\\xs\.xz.\:\n^, particularly, the third 
part of speech, the asserter, in its own peculiar traits, and its connec- 
tion with the other parts of speech. The others ar^ used for the construe-. 



(Jisserters.) etymology. 161 

tion of the sentences in which asserters occur ; and are, themselves, 
particularly described in their appropriate places. The rules of Syn- 
tax need not be applied till the pupil shall have become acquainted with 
the principles on which those rules are based. 

LESSON XIX. 

1 James can not go to Troy, finish my business, and return in six days, 
but Henry can. 2 George became anxious to learn. 3 If John will carry 
me home, 1 shallbe thankful. 4 What man is happy 1 5 Who is happy ? 
6 Oh that John had gone for Henry ! 7 " Oh may my understanding ever 
read this glorious volume." 8 John ; go home, if you would obUge me. — 
9 God said, '* Let there be light." 

[Let the pupil read what is said in parsing, and parse the words which are 
not parsed for him.] 

James is a name, particular, masculine, of the third person, in 
the singular form ; in the subjective case, having the asserter can 
go referring to, and depending on it to denote the subject of re- 
mark. 

Can go is an asserter, {go the principal, and cawtheauxiliar,) 
intransitive, (let the pupil tell why, 178, 11 ;) in the inferential 
mode, 184 ; in the present tense, 196 ; irregular, 203; in the 
common form, 207 ; it refers to, and depends on the name James 
— [without which it would not be sense.] 

Can is an asserter, 173 ; substitute, it is substituted for the e- 
leven words before it, to which it refers ; in the inferential mode, 
184 ; in the present tense, 196 ; it refers to, and depends on the 
name Henry, denoting the person who is the subject of remark. 

2 George became anxious to learn. 

Became is an asserter, 173 ; intransitive, 178 ; in the declar- 
ative mode, 183 ; in the indefinite-past tense, 194 ; irregular, 
203 ; in the common form, 207 ; it refers to, and depends on the 
name George, to denote the subject of remark. 

To learn, is an asserter, 173 ; transitive, 179 ; [though no 
object is mentioned, the pupil must remember that as no one can 
learn, without learning something, the asserter is necessarily tran- 
sitive ;] in the dependent mode, 187 ; in the indefinite tense, 199 ; 
regular, 202 ; it refers to the name George, to denote the sub- 
ject, and on the asserter became, and the adname anxious, for its 
place in the sentence. [See the diagram, letter ^, p 109.] 

3 If John will carry me home, I shall be thankful. 
Will carry is an asserter, 173 ; transitive, 179 ; in the de- 
clarative mode, 183 ; used in a sentence which if shows to be a 

14* 



162 ETYMOLOGY. (Mserieri.j 

conditional one : see letter c, p 112 ; in the indefinite-future tense, 
198 ; regular, 202 ; in the common form, 207 ; it refers to, and 
depends on the name John^ to denote the subject of remark. 

Shall be is an asserter^ 173; intransitive, 178, I ; declara- 
tive mode, 183 ; used to express what if shows to be a matter of 
contingence depending on the fulfillment of the condition which if 
serves to introduce ; in the indefinite-future tense, 198 ; irregu- 
lar, 203 ; in the common form, 207 ; it refers to, and depends on 
the subjective word /, to denote the subject of remark. 

Thankful is an adname^ 67 ; used to show the character or 
state of the subject, myself, the speaker, in the circumstances men- 
tioned ; it refers to, and depends on, the substitute 7, denoting the 
person that it is used to describe. 

4 What man is happy ? 5 Who is happy ? 

What is an adname, 67 ; interrogative in its influence : as the 
sentence, without this word, would be affirmative rather than in- 
terrogative, as now ; it belongs to, and depends on the name man. 

Is, is an asserter, 173 ; intransitive, 178, 1 ; in the declarative 
mode, 183 ; expressing that which the adname what, makes a mat- 
ter of doubt and iw^erro^a^iow ; [see letter a, p 112 ;] in the 
present tense, 196 ; irregular, 203 ; in the singular form, 205 ; 
it refers to, and depends on the name man. 

Who, is a substitute, 139 ; standing as the representative of 
the name person, and denoting that a human being is meant ; 
interrogative in its character : see *«, p 85 ;• making inter- 
rogative the sentence, which would be affirmative, if the name 
man, or any other name, was the subjective word ; in the subjec- 
tive case, 129, I ; and having the asserter is depending on it for 
its place in the sentence. 

Is, is d^nasserter, 173 ; intransitive, 178, I ; in the declarative 
mode, 183 ; used in an interrogative sentence ; made interroga- 
tive by the substitute who ; the mode being declarative as much 
as though the sentence was affirmative : see the second part of 
182, and letter 6, p 112; in the present tense, 196 ; irregular, 
203 ; in the singular form, 205 ; it refers to, and depends on the 
substitute who. 

6 Oh that John had gone for Henry ! 
Oh is an exclamation, 73. 

That, is a modifier, as here used ; being employed to make 
the sentence express regret that the fact contemplated did not occur. 



(Asseriers.) ^jtymology. 163 

Had gone is an asserter, 173 ; intransitive, 178, II ; in the 
declarative mode, 183 ; used in a sentence expressing regret that 
that did not occur which the asserter, used only with the name 
JohUf would declare had occurred : see letter (/, p 1 12. 

7 * Oh may my understanding ever read this glorious volume P 

May read is an asserter, {read the principal, and may the 
auxiliar ;) transitive ; in the interrogative mode ; used in a sen- 
tence expressing desire: [see letter /, p 113 ;] in the present 
tense ; irregular : in the common form ; referring to, and depen- 
ding on the name understanding, in the subjective case. 

8 John ; go home, if you would oblige me. 

Go is an asserter, intransitive ; in the commanding mode, used 
to express the act which the subject of remark is entreatedio per- 
form, the accompanying words showing that an entreat}^ or request 
is intended ; in the present tense ; irregular ; in the common 
form, (as all asserters are in this mode ;) referring to, and depen- 
ding on the name John, in the subjective case. 

Would oblige is an asserter ; oblige being the principal, and 
would the auxiliar ; transitive ; in the inferential mode, (used in 
a sentence of condition or contingence :) see letter g, p 113 ; in 
the indefinite tense, not being sufficient without the aid of other 
words to mark any distinction of time ; regular ; in the common 
form, referring to, and depending on the substitute ?/ow, in the sub- 
jective case. 

9 God said, — " Let there be light.'^ 

Said is an asserter, transitive, (the part of the sentence after 
the dash ( — ) being, as an expression, the object of the action, 172) 
in the declarative mode, in the indefinite-past tense, irregular, in 
the common form ; referring to, and depending on the name God. 

Let is an asserter, transitive, in the commanding mode abso- 
lute, or used without a name or substitute on which to depend : 
(see 188, and letter A., p 113 ;] in the present tense, expressing 
only the will of the Creator in reference to the fact mentioned. 

There, is a modifier, (see the note * under the definition of a 
modifier, hereafter given,) used only to modify the sound, and aid 
the euphony of the sentence. 

Be is an asserter, intransitive, in the dependent mode, indefi- 
nite tense, irregular, referring to, and depending on the name light. 



164 ETYMOLOGY. {Assertcrs.) 

Light is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the 
singular form, in the objective case, depending on the transitive 
asserter let, 

LESSON XX. 

1 I had written the letter when James called for it : [see 193-4.] 2 I 
have written the letter : see 195. 3 1 write letters — I am writing the let- 
ters : see 196. 4 I shall have written the letters when James will call for 
them : see 197-8. 5 I would write to Henry if I could : see 199. 6 I 
saw John run towards home : see letter j, 119. 7 1 shall see James wri- 
ting : see letter j, II, 119. 8 I saw the letter written : see letter j. III. 
9 John; you may go home : see letter /, p 119. 10 John must die : see 
letter q, p 120. 

[Let the pupil parse these sentences, referring to the numbers and letters 
mentioned. The word tfAm as used in these sentences, is a connective, 
modifying in its influence, while uniting the two sentences.] 

LESSON XXL 

If I had been at home yesterday, I should have seen John : see letters 
b and c, p 123. 2 If I was at home, now, I should be glad of your visits : 
see letter rf, p 123. 3 If William goes to school next summer, John will ac- 
company him : see letter e, p 123. 4 I shall be in New York when John 
arrives : see letter /. 5 1 shall remain here till George returns from New 
York : letter g, p 123. 6 Seth ; you should take an umbrella ; for it will 
rain before you have travelled five miles : letter h. The general ar- 
rived at the camp three days before the battle was fought : letter i. The 
general will arrive at the camp three days before the battle will be fought : 
letter j, p 124. 

[When, till, and before, in the above sentences, are connectives, modi- 
fying in their influence, while uniting their respective sentences.] 
LESSON XXII. 

The v^^icked flee when no man pursueth ; but the righteous are as bold as 
a lion. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice : but when 
the wicked rule, the people mourn. Remove* far from me vanity and lies. 
Give* me neither poverty nor riches : lest I should be poor, and steal, and 
take the name of my God in vain : or lest I should be full, and deny thee : 
and say, " Who is the Lord ?" 

LESSON XXIII. 

It is better to hear the rebuke of the wise, than to listen to the song of 
the fool. Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. Soon shall 
the dust return to dust, and the soul to God who gave it. He that diggeth 
a pit or spreadeth a snare for his neighbor, shall fall into it himself. 
LESSON XXIV. 

He who depends on his own exertions for success, will seldom be in want; 
but he that depends on the patronage of friends, is always in distress. Hon- 
esty, industry, and frugality, constitute the best capital with which a young 
man can begin business ; and without these, money is to him but the heavy 
load of a car going off'a precipice — it hastens the hour of his destruction; and 
makes more complete and fatal, the catastrophe which it induces. 

^Remove and give, in this lesson, are in the Commanding mode absolute; 
having no words on which to depend for sense. 



{Asserters.) etymology. 165 

ADNAMES — ADJECTIVES and articles. 

254 An adname is a part of speech added to a name 
or substitute to limit its meaning, or to show the quality, 
class, or condition of the thing denoted by the name or sub- 
stitute ; as, 

This book. The apple is sour. Brass clocks. John is virtuous. He 
is happy. 

255 PRIMARY DISTINCTIONS OF ADNAMES. 

I ------- Qualifying. 

II ------ Specifying. 

III ------- Interrogative. 

IV ------ Exclamatory. 

V------- Negative. 

VI ------ Assertive. 

VII Modifying. 

/. Qualifying Adnames, 
256 A qualifying adname is one which shows the quali- 
ty, class, or condition, of the object to which it refers ; as, 

A good man. Mar^ is good. A sweet apple. A wooden wheel. John 
is happy. 

2bl Qualifying adnames admit the following distinctions : 

12 3 

Simple form, Regular, Principal, 

Comparative form, Irregular, First Auxiliar, 

Superlative form, Defective, or Second Auxiliar, 

Diminutive form. Indeclinable* Third Auxiliar. 

SIMPLE FORM — Positivc Degree. 
258 The simple form is that which show^s the rank or 
quality of one object, without reference to that of another ; as, 
A wise man. A good man. A happy man. A sweet apple. 

*Those who prefer the term indeclinable, to defectivey can use it. The 
author prefers the latter ; as adnames, in this respect, are like asserters. — 
See 2G6 ; then, 204. 



166 ETYMOLOGY. {Adnames.) 

COMPARATIVE FORM — Comparative Degree. 

259 The comparative form is that which shows the rank 
or quahty of one object as compared with that of anoth- 
er; as, 

A wis-er man. A better man. A happi-er man. A sweet-er apple. 

SUPERLATIVE FORM — Superlative Degree. 

260 The superlative form is that which represents an 
object as exceeding all others referred to, in the rank or qual- 
ity mentioned ; as, 

The wis-e5^ man. The best man. The hd.ppi-est man. The svfeet-est 
apple. 

DIMINUTIVE FORM. 

261 The diminutive form of an adname represents, with- 
out the idea of the direct comparison of objects, a diminu- 
tion from the state or quality which the simple form of the 
adname denotes; as, 

Simple form — red, blue, strong: 

Diminutive form — red-dish, blu-ish, somewhat strong.* 

THE DECLENSION OF ADNAMES 

262 Is varying their forms to represent different degrees 
of the rank or qualities of the objects to which they refer. 

A Regular Adname 

263 Is one which has its comparative form made by the 
addition of r or er, to the simple form ; and its superlative 
by adding st or est ; as, 

Simple — wise, great. Comparative — wis-er, great-er. Superlative — 
Vfis-est, ^resit-est. 

An Irregular Adname 

264 Is one which has its comparative, and its superlative 

form made, either by associating with the simple form, the 

words MORE and most ; or by a change of the entire 

word ; as, 

Simple — elegant, good ; Comparative — more elegant, better ; Superla- 
tive — most elegant, best.] a. 

*It is seen that in the example of this word, the adname, itself, undergoes 
no change in form, but only in meaning, hy the use of somewhat. 

fA It is seen that the adname elegant, of itself, undergoes no change in 
its own form; yet the combinations, wore elegant, and 7?20s^ elegant, as 



(Adnames.) etymology. 167 

265 The meaning of an adnanrie is varied by the prefix of an- 
other word qualifying it, to the same extent as by a change in the 
termination of the adname : Thus, 

Simp, fornit Comparative, Superlative, Diminutive. 

C yellow-er, yellow-cs^, yellow-i«A. 

YELLOW, "^ - ° ° 

i_ more yellow. most yellow. somewhat yellow. 

C brown-er, brown-cs^, brown-wA, 

BROWN, < S S ° 

(wore brown. wi05^ brown. somewhat hvoym.* 

A Defective Adname 

266 Is one which represents, in the simple form, the ex- 
tent of sense which the adname is capable of expressing ; 
(and is of course to be used in but one of the four forms :) as, 

Golden, woollen, round, square, boundless, infinite, pecuniary, penny- 
less, friendless. 

267 All adnames of two syllables, that end in y, may be de- 
clined regularly by exchanging y for i, and adding erand est ; as, 

Simple form : holy, happy; Comparative : holier, happier ; Superla- 
tive : hoMest, happiesif — 

268 All except little, that end in le with the e not sounded, by 
adding r and st ; as, 

Simple form : simple, humble, gentle ; Comparative : simpler, humbler, 
gentler ; Superlative : simplest, humblest, gentles/ — and 

combinations, are in the comparative, and the superlative form — the mean- 
ing of the combinations being the same as though the expressions were ele- 
gant-er/ elegant-es// 

B It is seen that the adname good, of itself, as a word, undergoes no 
change in form, in our expressing the comparative and the superlative 
sense of the adname ; but it gives place to the words Je/^er and Jes/, equiv- 
alent, in meaning, to gooder, gooAest — [these two words, as well as elegant- 
er, elegantes/, not being consistent with the idiom of the language.] 



*From this comparison of the use of more and most, with that of er and 
est, it is seen that their influence is one and the same — for, to use a figura- 
tive expression, more and most, like er and est, pour their qualifying influ- 
ence upon the words yellow and brown. They do not give different quali- 
ties to the object, but express an addition to the same qualities that the 
principal adnames, {^s yellow and brown,) zlone, would represent ; as, John 
has a 7/e/^tc house ; but Henry's house is yellower or wzore yellow ; and 
William's is the yellowest or most yellow : while Seth's house is only yel- 
hvfish or somewhat yellow. 



168 ETYMOLOGY. (jlsscrters.) 

269 All of one syllable, except those mentioned as irregular, and 
those whose sound would be unpleasant — 

270 All others that are declinable, are to be declined irregu- 
larly — and 

271 Those which may be declined regularly, may have, also, the 
irregular declension ; as, 

Wise, wiser, or more wise ; wisest, or most wise ; happy, happier, or 
more happy ; happiesif, or iJiost happy. 

272 DECLENSION—FOUR forms. 



Diminutive 
form. 


Simple form. 


Comparative Superlative 
form. form. 


Whitish 


white 


whiter whitest 


Bluish 


blue 


bluer bluest 


Yellowish 


yellow* 


yellower yellowest 


273 


EXAMPLES OF REGULAR ADNAMES. 


Simple form. 


Comparative form. Superlative form. 


Able 


abler 


ablest 


Bright 


brighter 


brightest 


Happy 


happier 


happiest 



EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR ADNAMES. 

[They are of two classes.] 
274 First: those which are declined in combination, by having 
more and most, associated with them ; as. 



Simple form. 


Comparative form. Superlative form. 


Acid 


more acid most acid 


Awful 


more awful most awful 


Blithesome 


more blithesome most blithesome 


275 Second ; 


those which are declined by a change of the en- 


tire words ; as. 




Simple form. 


Comparative form. Superlative form. 


Bad 


worse worst 


Good 


better best 


Little 


less least 


Equalf 


superior supreme, or chief J 


Equal 


inferior least 



* Yellow, severe, sublime, and pleasant, may be declined regularly. 

^ Equal denotes, not a quality, but rank with respect to quality; and sup- 
poses a comparison, even in the simple form ; while the other two forms 
give a different representation with respect to the same rank or quality. 

:j:These two terms are not given, in comparison, except in showing the 
grade of officers or courts. 



{Adnames.) etymology. 169 

276 EXAMPLES OF DEFECTIVE ADNAMES. 

Brazen Omnipotent Absent 

Round Omnipresent Wooden 

Infinite Perfect Medical 

Boundless Present Golden 

277 The word somewhat may be prefixed to the simple form 
of a qualifying adname, to express, without comparison, a dimin- 
ution from the sense denoted by the simple form ; as, 

Simple form : studious, careful ; Diminutive form : somewhat studi- 
ous ; somewhat careful. 

278 The word less is prefixed to the simple form to express a 
comparative diminution ; and least, to give the superlative sense ; as, 

Simple form : studious, careful y Comparative form of the combination: 
less studious, less careful ; superlative : least studious, least careful. 

PRINCIPAL ADNAMES.* 

279 I. A principal adname is one which makes sense ta- 
ken with only the name or substitute on which it depends 
— and, if a qualifying adname, 

11. Is that which, of itself, describes the object deno- 
ted by the v^^ord on which the adname depends ; as. 
Blue cloth ; sweet apples ; a good man. t 

AUXILIAR ADNAMES.* 

280 I. An auxiliar adname is one which qualifies the 
sense expressed by a principal, and belongs to, and depends 
on, the principal, and the word to which that refers ; as, 

Deep blue cloth ; very sweet apples ; a truly good man. 
II. An auxiliar adname does not, of itself, express the 
quality or trait mentioned, but is used to assist in varying 
the meaning of the one which does express the quality or 
trait.t 

281 Auxiliars may be declined in combination with principals, 
by associating with them more and most; as, 

*Formerly called /(nmari/ and secondary adnames, 

fA-ny adname is principal which makes sense without another adname's 
coming between that and the word on which it depends. 

JAdnames, preceding others, do not thereby necessarily become auxil- 
iars — those only being auxiliars which qualify or limit the sense of the ones 
which they precede ; thus, Adam Clark was an industrious, persevering, 
learned, wise, good, and useful man. Here are seven principal adnames, 
belonging to the name man. 
15 



170 ETYMOLOGY. {Mtiames.^ 

Simple form of the combination : truly good ; Comparative : more tru- 
ly good ; Superlative : most truly good. 

282 Auxiliar adnames are called First, Second, and Third, ac- 
cording to their nearness to, or distance from, the principal — thus, 





i 

5 1 


1 
Cloth 


a 


s 

1 


1 '^ 
% Blue 


Cloth 


h 


< 


Deep blue 


Cloth 


c 


rkal 


^ly deep blue 


Cloth 


d 



Very remarkably deep blue Cloth*a e 

11. Fine, blue, loide, strong, cheap Cloth. 

[Here are five principal adnames, each belonging to the name cloth.l 

B 

jj^Auxil. ;.AuxiI. .Auxil. ^Auxil. 2-Auxil. O 

^ d <1 S- P s 

S- ►§ '^ S ^5- ^ 

? ? ? ? and ? t 

III. Fine, Blue, Wide, Strong, ^ Cheap Cloth. 

[Here the five principal adnames, in Italic, have, each, an auxiliar.] 
283 I. {Ji^^By diagram I, the pupil has seen that a principal qual" 

*a The first auxiliar qualifies the principal, and through that, refers to 
the object. 

b The second auxiliar qualifies the first, and through that, the principal, 
and, (by means of that,) refers to the object mentioned. 

c The third auxiliar qualifies the second, and through that, the first, and 
through that, the principal, and by means of the principal, refers to the ob- 
ject : as in the above diagram. 

d CC|=In the foregoing diagram, it is seen that the principal adname blue, 
is attached to the name cloth, to show the quality, [color,] of the object de- 
noted by that name ; and that the other terms are attached to the name 
cloth through the medium of blue: they being, in degree, like the links of 
a chain, dependent on each other ; yet all dependent on blue, and vs-ith that, 
on the name cloth. 

e ^0^As a qualifying adname is a word added, or attached to a name, to 
show the quality of the thing denoted by it; and as all these terms are ad- 
ded to the name cloth, for that purpose, and that only ; all of them must be 
adnames. 



{Adnames.) etymology. 



17i 



ifying adname may be used without an auxiliar, or may have one 
two, or three auxiliars. [It may never have more than three aiix- 
iliars in direct, linear relation and dependence.] 

II. This remark is true of asserters, according to their meaning 
and application ; as, I write. The letters miijht have been writ- 
ten. [Three auxiliars, three only.'] 

284 I. (J{5-By diagram II, the pupil has seen that principal ad- 
names precede others without thereby becoming auxiliars. [See 
note t p 169.] 

II. ^This remark is true of asserters ; as, The letter, writ- 
ten, folded, and mailed, was sent away. 

285 I. g^By diagram, III, he has seen that several principal 
adnames, with their respective auxiliars, may alike relate to the 
term denoting the object to which the adnames refer. 

II. This remark is true of asserters ; as, James ^as written, 
and is folding the letter, and will soon take it to the office. 

{The pupil will be pleased to find so great a coincidence in adnames and 
asserters. 

Adnames and Asserters Compared, 

NAMES. AUXILIAKS. AUXILIARS. AUXILIARS. PRINCIPALS. 

IV. Gloves, BLACK. "^ ^ 

I '^ 

Gloves, deep black. ' S 

Gloves, remarkably deep black, f ^ 

Gloves, very remarkably deep black.* J ^ 

SUBSTITUTES. *,',','. 

V. I walk. 1 . 
I have walked. 1 ^ 
I might have walked. ( ^ 
I might have been walking J ^ 

*a Qualifying adnames, in the simple form, as it is said in the definition, 
show the rank or <juality of one object, without reference to that of anoth- 
er : yet the sense expressed by most adnames in the simple form, being rel- 
ative, not positive^ is drawn from a prior comparison, by which the stand- 
ard is raised ; though when this form of the adname is used in application 
to the name of the thing, whose quality it represents, the mind does not 
necessarily compare that thing with another of the same kind ; but is sat- 
isfied in permitting the word to have the extent of meanmg generally allow- 
ed to it. 

b On this principle of the relative, not positive, meaning of words, we 



172 ETYMOLOGY. {Adnamcs.y 

286 Names often assume the relation of adnames, principal and 
auxiliar. Thus, 

Names. Adnames, 

Oak Oak chests 

Silver Silver spoons 

Country Country merchants 

City City laws 

Years Helen is eighteen years* old. 

Feet The wall is ten feet * high. 

Mile Hudson river is a mile * wide. 

287 Any adname, whether qualifying or specifying, is a princi- 
pal adname, if it makes sense used in connection with only the 
name or substitute to which it refers. 

//. /Specifying .Adnames, 

288 A specifying adname is one which specifies the num- 
ber or order of things, or, without reference to the quality 
of a thing, how it is to be regarded ; as, 

call that article black, whose color is nearer the hue known by that term^ 
than it is to any other color having a name ; and, although the idea of the 
black color is approached, only by a comparison of different colors ; yet, if 
I say, ' John's hat is black,' the hearer understands me without comparing 
that hat with any other hat : he allows the term black, the common extent 
of its meaning, as it is generally applied. 

c Though I say, • James' . hat is blacker,* no one would think the expres- 
sion absurd, because the term 'black,' being allowed its relative, not its 
positive meaning, admits the use of a term that carries the ideas farther than 
the simple term black: yet [^ black should be used in its full, positive sense, 
it would exclude the idea of every other shade of the color ; and make my 
meaning to be, that the color of the hat is the perfection of blackness. 

d If, then, I say the hat is ' black,' it is supposed I mean that the color 
of the hat approaches nearer the color called black than any other di- 
vision of color that has a name : and to this, I may add, James' < hat is 6/ac/f- 
er, and Henry's hat is the blackest; though even this might njt be a hat 
perfectly black, or Jet black. 

e This manner of treating adnames, and using them in their relative, not 
positive meaning, should be carried as far as it can be, without manifest ab- 
surdity. 

♦Auxiliar adnames. These three auxiliars qualify their respective princi- 
pals, old, high, andMJirfe;and belong, with them, to the names iZie/ew, 
wall, and river. Eighteen, ten, and a, are, respectively, jorinc/pa^ adnames, 
in their relation to the words y ears, /ec/, and mile, as mere names : yet the 
word years, with eighteen; feet, with ten; and mile, \^\th a, as combina- 
tions, are auxiliar adnames, used only to qualify the words next after them,, 
and, with these words, intended only to describe the objects denoted by tU^ 
names, Helen, wall, and river. 



{Adnames.) etymology. 1T3 

One man, two men, fifty men — the first man, the second man, the fif- 
tieth man, this man, those men, ewery man, any man, a/^ men. 

289 Specifying ad names admit the following distinctions : 
1 2 3 4 5 

Numeral, Ordinal, Distributive, Definite, Indefinite. 

NUMERAL SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 

290 A numeral specifying ad name is one which shows 
the exact number of objects ; as. 

One man, two men, ten men, fifty men, 500 men.* 

ORDENAL SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 

291 An ordinal specifying adname is one which shows 
the ORDER, (with respect to number,) in which an object is 
to be considered or taken ; as, 

The first man, the second man, the tenth man, the 50th man. fa 

DISTRIBUTIVE SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 

292 A distributive specifying adname is one which de- 
notes that the objects referred to are to be regarded sepa- 
rately or singly; as, Each man, every man. 

293 The distributive specifying adnames are each^ every, either, zxid nei- 
ther ; as, each man, every man, either man, neither man. 

DEFINITE SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 

294 A definite specifying adname is one which is used 
to marlc more definitely a particular object or class or collec- 
tion of objects ; as, 

This man was the friend of the poor. These books are Henry's. 

295 The principal adnames of this class are this and that; exchanged, 
when referring to plurals, for these and those; former, latter ^ which, said, 

*The words in Italic show the exact number of the objects referred to, 
but have not the least allusion to their quality, character, or condition. 

fa These words in Italic, represent the order of selecting or contempla- 
ting the objects, but do not, in the least, show the numbei- of the objects. 
JVwmer a/ adnames show the number of the objects, not the order. Ordi- 
nal adnames show the order in which things are regarded, not the number 
of the things. 

b A common error is to say, " Sing, (or read,) the three first verses,*' 
&c. As the verses necessarily succeed each other, there can be but one first 
verse ; and to say, * read the three first,* would, consequently, be very ab- 
surd. The ordinal is also to be used in particularizing which, (in relation to 
number,) is meant ; as, the fifth verse ; page twenty -fourth. The word 

last may be used as an ordinal ; thus, the last two verses; the last day i 

[See Rules of Syntax.] 

15* 



17-4 ETYMOLOGt. (Adnaihis.) 

aforesaid, afore-mentioned, the, the same, and Particular names used as ad- 
names ; as, Oneida county; Oreg-on territory; Pam fashions.* 

INDEFINITE SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 

296 An indefinite specifying adname is one which de- 
notes that the objects to which it refers are to be considered 
or taken indefinitely or generally ; as, 

5o;ne man, any man, all mew, a man, an apple. 

297 The principal indefinite specifying adnames are a, an, one, (when 
not referring particularly to number,) some, other, another, any, all,suchf 
several, little, (when referring to quantity, notsize,) much, mariy,enoughf 
sufficient, few, whole, whatever, whatsoever, and whichever. 

298 Of these, some, little, few, several, much^ and many^ are declina- 
ble : Thus, 

299 DECLENSION OF INDEFINITE SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 



Simple form. 


Comparative form. 


Superlative form. 


Some 


more 


most 


Some 


less 


least 


Little 


less 


least 


Few 


fewer, or less 


fewest, or least 


Severalf 


more 


most 


Much 


more 


most 


Many 


more 


most 



300 Owe, other, and another, when used as Adname Substi^ 
tuteSy may be declined like names. [See page 88.] 

///. Interrogative Mnames, 

301 An interrogative adname is one which is prefixed 
to a name to express interrogation ; as, 

Which apple is sour ? What means are necessary to our success !| 

IV, Exclamatory JLdnames. 

302 An exclamatory adname is one which is prefixed to a 
name only to make the sense of the phrase or sentence ex-* 
clamatory; asj 

*Olher words may be used as definite specifying adnames, and, when so 
used, can be known by the sense. 

tUsed in the sense of some. 

XWhich and whatzxQ the only words of this class. 



{Adnames.) E^YMOT^oGf. 17* 

What students these are! What a painful truth that was to Henry I 
How sublimely great and glorious are the attributes of Godl*a 

V. JVegative Adname, 

303 A negative adname is one which is added to a name 
or an adname substitute, only to exert a negative influ- 
ence on its meaning; as, 

JVo man can escape from death. JVo one is perfectly happy. f 

VI. Assertive Adnames. 

304 An assertive adname is one which partakes the na- 
tures of an ASSERTER and an adname ; as, 

A roaring cataract ; a shrivelled form ; a blooming rose ; a charming 
landscape.lA 

*a What is the only jormd/jaZ exclamatory adname, and how is the only 
auxiliar exclamatory adname. How is never to be prefixed to what, but, 
when used as an auxiliar, it is auxiliar to a qualifying adname, as above. 

b To exhibit the exclamatory character of these adnames, let us use the 
same sentence without the adnames; as, ' Students, these are.' This is 
simply descriptive, now ; there being nothing exclamatory about it. What 
students these are 1 An exclamatory sentence, now, made so entirely by 
the word what. ♦Sublimely great and glorious are the attributes of God' — ' 
merely descriptive. How sublimely great and glorious are the attributes 
of God ! An exclamatory sentence, made so entirely by the use of the word. 
Aowj, which, as an exclamatory adname acts as d, second auxiliar to the 
qualif3'ing adnames great and glorious, by throwing its exclamatory influ- 
ence, first upon the first auxiliar, sublimely, dind through that upon the two 
principals, great and glorious ; like deep, in diagram I, letter c^ p 170. 

fJVb is the only mere negative adname in the language : yet the word 
neither, as a distributive specifying adname, has a negative, with its distrib- 
utive, meaning. [See letter c, p 89.] 

Xa Assertive adnames, like asserters, express facts, and, as adnames, use 
these very facts to characterize or describe the objects referred to. 

B A mere adname never represents an object as </omg- anything. A mere 
asserter is never used to show the quality or character of an object. Thus, 
The rose blooms. The asserter blooms, shows only what the rose does, 
without the least reference to the character of the rose. Helen plucked a 
beautiful rose. The adname- beautiful shows the character of the rose, 
without the least reference to what the rose does. Yet when I say, Helen 
plucked a blooming rose, the word blooming, like a mere asserter, repre- 
sents what the rose is doing, (unfolding, opening,) and, like an adname, by 
this very act, it shows the character of the rose, as blooming, not fading. 

c Char water — clear, a mere adname, showing the quality or character 
of the water. The water runs — runs, a mere asserter, showing what the 
water does, without any reference to the character of the water. Run' 
ning water. Running, like an asserter, shows what the water does, (is 
doing,) and, like an adname, it is prefixed to the name water, added to 



176 ETYMOLOGY. (Adnames.) 

VIL Modifyhig Mnames. 

305 A modifying adname is one which partakes the na- 
tures of a MODIFIER and an adname ; as 

I held my hand open. James rubbed the silver bright. Henry walks e- 
rect.*a 



Questions on Adnames, 

What is an adname ? 254. Give examples. What are the primary dis- 
tinctions of adnames ? 255. What is a qualifying adname? 256. Exam- 
ples. What distinctions do qualifying adnames admit ? 257. What is the 
simple form of an adname 1 258. Examples. The comparative form 1 259. 
The superlative, form ? 260. The diminutive form ? 261. What is the 
declension of adnames 7 262. What is a regular adname 1 263. An irreg- 
ular adname .' 264. What is taught by * p 166 ? by ]a 7 by b ? How is 
the meaning of an adname varied ? 265. What is taught by * p 167? — 
What is a defective adname ? 266. What is taught by 267 ? by 268 ? by 
269 ? by 270 ? bv 271 ? Give examples from 272— from 273-4-5. What 
is taught by * p i68 1 by f ? by t ? 

the name to show, (by what the water does,) the character of the water 
mentioned. 

d Orj^'Asserters, as such, have mode and tense ; while adnames have nei- 
ther, but belong, like qualifying adnames, to the names of the objects to 
which they refer. 



*a The mere modifier qualifies a fact or event ^ but is not used to show 
the quality, class, or condition of an object. The mere qualifying adname 
never qualifies a fact or event, but is used only to show the quality, class, 
or condition of an object. The modifying adname qualifies the /ac^ refer- 
red to, as much as a mere modifier ; and shows the condition or state of an 
object, as much as a mere adname. It is fully a modifier in qualifying the 
fact mentioned, and fully an adname, from its relation to the name denoting 
the object described. Thus, 

b Henry is erect— Erect, diS here used, is a mere adname, not qualifying 
any action, but used only to show the state of the man referred to, as an e- 
rect person. Henry walks gracefully — Gracefully, as here used, is a mere 
modifier; qualifying only the fact of the man's walking, without any refer- 
ence to his character or condition. It shows merely how the man does the 
act of walking. • Henry walks erect.^ This word erect is as fully a modi- 
fier as gracefully, and as fully an adname as erect, as first used in this par- 
agraph ; is fully both, but is not exclusively either. 

c Oc|-Should the learner find a word, (in a sentence,) so nearly resem- 
bling both an adname and a modifier, that he knows not which to call it, he 
may believe it to be a modifying adname — for, if it was either, exclusive- 
ly, he would be likely to know which it was. Other examples : He made 
the rough places smooth, and the crooked ways straight. The eggs were 
boiled hard. " Charity lays the rough paths of peevish nature even.'* [See 
Rules of Syntax.] 



(Adtiames.) etymology. 17T 

II. Give examples of defective adnames from 276. What is said of some' 
what, in 277 ? of less, in 278 ? What is a principal adname ? 279, I, II. 
What is taught by * p 169 ? What is an auxiliar adname ? 280, I, II. — 
What is taught by f p 169 ? How may auxiliars be declined ? 281. How 
are the auxiliars distinguished .'* 282. What is the w^ord cloth, letter a, of 
diagram I, p 170? What is blue, letter 6 ? deep, c ? remarkably, d? 
very, e ? How many principal adnames are found in diagram II ? What 
is the auxiliar of the adname fine, diagram III ? of blue ? of wide ? of 
strong ? of cheap ? To what name do they all belong and refer ? What 
is taught by *a ? by b ? c? d? e? What is taught by 283, I, p 170 ?— 
How many auxiliars may adnames and asserters have ? 283, I, II. What 
is taught by 284, I, II ? 285, I, II ? See diagrams, IV, V, '♦ Adnames and 
Asserters compared." What is taught by note *a? hy b? c1 d? el — 
Do names ever become adnames ? 286, and *. Which of the names in the 
first column become principal adnames as used in the second column .' — 
Which become auxiliars ? What do these qualify ? What is taught by 287.? 

III. What is a specifying adname ? 288. How are specifying adnames 
distinguished? 289. What is a numeral specifying adname ? 290. What 
is said in note * ? -What is an ordinal specifying adname ? 291. What is 
taught by note \a 7 hy b? What is a distributive specifying adname ? 292. 
What are the distributives ? 293. What is a dehnite specifying adname .' 
294. What are these definitives .' 295. What is taught by note * p 174 ? 
What is an indefinite specifying adname ? 296. What are the words in the 
list of indefinites ? 297. What is taught by 298 ? Repeat the declensiion, 
299. What is said in 300 ? What is an interrogative adname? 301. — 
What is taught by | p 174 1 What is an exclamatory adname 1 302. — 
What is taught by *a ? by 6 ? p 175 ? What is a negative adname ? 303. 
What is said in f p 175, of no ? of neither 7 What is an assertive adname? 
304. What is taught by note J a ? by b .' by c ? d 7 What is a modify- 
ing adname 7 305. What is said in *a, p 176 7 by h7 by c ? 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



LESSON XXV. 



1 Charles purchased four very large apples, and gave them to Julia. 2 
Seth ; you are five years older than Mary ; who is, herself, a few days old- 
er than Harriet. 3 My highway fence is a hundred and fifty feet long. — 
4 Stone fence is the best kind. 5 Julia's father is a very remarkably good 
agriculturist. 

1 Four is an adname^ specifying, numeral, (principal,) belong- 
ing to, and depending on, the name apples, denoting ,the things 
whose number the adname is used to show. 

Very is an adname, qualifying, auxiliar to the principal large^ 
which it qualifies; it belongs, with the principal, to the name ap" 
pies, denoting the things which the adnames are used to describe. 



178 ETYMOLOGY. {Aduames.) 

Large is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, (declined, 
Simple, large; Comparative, larg-er ; Superlative, hig-est :) 
principal, belonging to, and depending on, the name apples, deno- 
ting the objects to which the adname refers. 

2 Seth ; you are Jive years older than Mary ; who is, herself, 
a few days older than Harriet. 

Five is an adname, specifying, numeral, principal, belonging 
to, and depending on, the word years, as a mere name : [see .^86, 
and note *, p 172 ;] yet, the word 

Years, a name, is here used as an adname, qualifying, auxil- 
iar to the principal adname older, which it qualifies, and with which 
it belongs to the substitute you, denoting the object which the 
adnames are used to describe. [See 286, and * p 172.] 

Older is an adname, qualifying, in the comparative form, (de- 
clined. Simple, old; Comparative, old-er ; Superlative, o\A-est :) 
principal, belonging to, and depending on, the word you, denoting 
the object to which it refers. 

3 My highway fence is a hundred and Jiffy feet long. 

A is an adname, specifying, indefinite, belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the word hundred, as a mere name of a number ; while 
the phrase 

Hundred and fifty, as a combination, is an adname, speci- 
fying, numeral, and, with the word a, referring to, and depending 
on, the word/ee^, (the plural o( foot,) as a mere name. 

Feet is a name, used, in combination with ahundred and fifty, 
as an adname, auxiliar to the principal long, with which it belongs 
to the name fence, denoting the thing which is a hundred and 
fifty feet long. [See 286, and * p 172.] 

Long is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, (declined, 
Simple, long; Compaiative, long-er; Superlative, \ong-est :) 
principal, belonging to, and depending on, the name/ence, deno- 
ting the thing described as long. 

4 Stone fence is the best kind. 
Stone is a name, used as an adname, qualifying, belonging to, 
and depending on, the name/cTJce, denoting the thmg described. 

5 Julia's father is a very remarkably good Agriculturist. 

A is an adname, specifying, indefinite, referring to, and depen- 
ding on, the name agriculturist. 

Very is an adname, auxiliar, of the second class, qualifyingthe 



(Adnames.) etymology. 179 

first auxiliar, remarkably, and through that, the principal adname 
good, and with good, belonging to the name agriculturist, denoting 
the object which they are all used to describe. 

Remarkably is an adname, auxiliar, of the first class, quali- 
fying the principal good, and belonging, with that, to the name 
agriculturist. 

Good is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, (declined, 
Simple, good; Comparative, ie/Ze/-; Superlative, ^esZ ;) princi- 
pal, belonging to, and depending on, the name agriculturist, deno- 
ting the object described. 

LESSON XXVI. 

1 Hiram is somewhat careless with respect to his personal appearance ; 
but I hope he will amend. 2 The soil of tlie southern part of the country is 
of a reddish hue. 3 Richard is more studious than Robert was. 4 Giles 
lent me more than twenty dollars.* 5 I lost less than five dollars by tra- 
ding with the stranger.* 

1 Somewhat is an adname, auxiliar, qualifying the principal 
careless, in detracting from the sense expressed by careless, (to 
prevent its meaning too much,) and belonging, with the principal, 
to the name Hiram. [The combination, somewhat careless, \s'm 
the diminutive form. See 261 and 265.] 

2 Reddish is an adname, qualifying, in the diminutive form, 
(declined, Diminutive, redc?is^; Simple, rerf; Comparative, red- 
der; Superlative, reddest :) belonging to, and depending on the 
name soil, denoting the object described. 

LESSON XXVIL 
1 " This man has done nothing amiss." 2 Any person is capable of do- 
ing much good or harm : therefore every one should seek, first, to be harm- 
less, and, next, to be useful. 3 What truth disturbs thy midnight thoughts? 
How frightful are thy dreams ! 4 What students these are ! 5 No man 
should delay till another time what he ought to do now. 6 Oh ! bid this 
throbbing heart be still. 7 James laid the floor 20 feet square. 8 Every 
tenth man was sent away. 

1 This is an adname, specifying, definite, belonging to, and 
depending on the name man, denoting the object to which the ad- 
name refers. 

2 Any is an adname, specifying, indefinite, belonging to, and 
depending on the name jsersow, denoting the object to which the 
adname refers. 

*More than, and less than, as used in this lesson, are, respectively, aux- 
iliar adnames, qualifying the sense expressed by their respective principals, 
twenty and five, and belonging with them to the terms to which they be- 
long. They are used in this sense when they refer to the qualities or quan- 
tities of things, without having than act the part of a connective. 



180 ETYMOLOGY. (Adnames.) 

Every is an adname, specifying, distributive, belonging to, and 
depending on, the adname substitute one, denoting the object to 
which the adname refers. 

3 What, as used with the name truth, is an adname, inter- 
rogative, used only to make, interrogative, a sentence which would 
otherwise be simply afHrmative ; it belongs to, and depends on 
the name truth, denoting the object to which the adname refers. 

How is an adname, exclamatory, used as an auxiliar to the prin- 
cipal, frightful, which it qualifies, and belon ging with that to the 
name dreams. 

4 What, as used with the name students, is an adname, ex- 
clamatory, used only to make, exclamatory, the sentence which 
would otherwise be simply descriptive ; it belongs to, and depends 
on, the name students, denoting the objects to which the adname 
refers. [See *a and b, p 175.] 

5 No is an adname, negative, used only to deny what would 
otherwise, (or without the adname,) be affirmed : it belongs to, 
and depends on, the name man. 

6 Throbbing, is an adname, assertive, (showing, like an as- 
serter, that the heart does something, and using that act to de- 
scribe, like an adname, the thing, the heart, denoted by the name 
heart, to which the adname refers, and on which it depends. 

7 20 is an adname, specifying, numeral, belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the word feet, as a mere name : yet, 

Feet, a name, is used here with 20, as an adname, auxiliar to 
the principal, square, and belonging, with square, to the name 
floor, denoting the object which the adnames are used to desciibe. 

Square is an adname, modifying, (while it qualifies the floor 
as the thing described, it modifies or qualifies the meaning of the 
sentence, by showing how he laid the floor ;) it belongs to, and 
depends on the udiine floor. 

8 Tenth is an adname, specifying, ordinal, belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the name man, denoting the object referred to. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

The period is short in which man must prepare himself for the duties of 
active life. We should, therefore, never waste a moment of time in idle- 
ness, or in such amusement as would unfit us for the performance of our 
parts in the great theatre of life. The upright man secures the respect and 
esteem of the good, and the veneration of the vile who stand in awe of his 
virtues. 

LESSON XXIX. 

Manly habits, without tedious or dull formality, should characterize the 



'{Modifiers.) etymology. 181 

young. Open and candid deportment, and vivacity without levity of mind, 
should be among the characteristics of middle-aged persons ; and cheerful- 
ness and serenity of mind, should gild the mild radiance of life's decline. 

LESSON XXX. 

Youthful follies are seeds, sow^n in the spring of human life, that must, in 
vigorous manhood, produce thorns and thistles, which will bestrew our path- 
way in the decUne of life, when we shall be too feeble to remove them. 

" Virtuous youth gradually brings forv^^ard accomplished and flourishing 
manhood ; and that manhood, passes, of itself, without uneasiness, into re- 
spectable and tranquil old age." 

" Vice poisons our felicity in the bud, by introducing disorders into the 
heart." 

LESSON XXXL 

The hoary head is a crown of glory, if it is found in the way of right- 
eousness. A wise servant shall rule over the foolish son that causeth shame. 
The poor man that walketh in his integrity, is better than the rich who is 
perverse in his way. A wise son maketh glad his father ; but a foolish sou 
is the heaviness and grief of his mother. — Bible. 

Od^The reader has perceived that no attempt is made to follow the old 
nomenclature among the specifying adnames, and the subsequent divisions 
of the adnames. The reason is obvious. The old theorists have never a- 
greed among themselves, and, of course, it would be altogether impractica- 
ble to follow them. Some call these words definitives; some, restrictives ; 
some, adjective pronouns ; some, pronominal adjectives; some, descrip- 
tive adnouns, and others, specifying adjectives. 

The terms employed in this work, are, it will be found, philosophical, and 
clearly descriptive of the traits of the words distinguished. These reasons 
must suffice for the seeming departure from the general rule of continuing 
the old nomenclature with the new. 



MODIFIERS— Adverbs. 

306 A modifier is a part of speech used to modify the 
«ense, (or sound,) of the sentence or clause of the sentence 
in which it occurs ; as, 

James speaks fluently in debate. John was not at home when I called 
yesterday. Seth writes elegantly when he tries to write well. God said, 
*'let ^Webelight."*a 

*a Modifiers are sometimes used merely to modify the sound — to soften 
the expression or aid the euphony of the sentence ; as in the example a- 
bove. Thus, " God said, ♦ let there be light.' " Herethe word there adds 
Tiothing to the sense or meaning of the sentence. It is employed only to 
render more smooth and flowing the sentence in which it is found. God 
16 



182 ETYMOLOGY. {Modifiers.) 

307 Modifiers, as single words, or combinations of words, ad- 
mit, according to their meaning, the following distinctions : 
Simple form. Principal, 

Comparative form, First Auxiliar, 

Superlative form, Second Auxiliar, 

Diminutive form. Third Auxiliar. 

308 Modifiers admit, as subdivisions, the following eleven distinctions. 
TJie names of the subdivisions are sufficient definitions. Thus, 

MODIFIERS, 

a First; of manner : as, wisely, wickedly, cheerfully, fast, 
slowly, swiftly, badly, kindly, sweetly, sincerely, together, alike. 

b Second ; of time : 

c Time past : as, already, lately, heretofore, hitherto, long- 
ago, long since. 

d Time present : now. 

e Time future : as, hereafter, henceforth, by-and-by. 

/ Time indefinite : as, oft, often, oft-times, monthly, year- 
ly, then, ever, never, again, immediately, presently, instantly, 
yet. 

g Third; of place : as, here, there, anywhere, no-where, 
somewhere. 

h Fourth; of tendency or direction: as, hither, thither, 
up, upward, down, downward, back, backward, forth, forward, 
hence, thence, off, away. 

i Fifth ; of number : as, once, twice, thrice, or three times, 
four times, ten times. 

j Sixth ; of order : as, first, secondly, thirdly. 

k Seventh ; Those referring to means or cause : as, hereby^ 
thereby, wherefore, therefore, consequently. 

BzXA^ let he light, or let light be ^ would express, though in an awkward 
manner, the same idea. 

h There are those who seem utterly indifferent to the wants and woes of 
humanity — a good, elegant expression. Omit the word there : « Those are 
who seem utterly indifferent' — the perfection of awkwardness. By this we 
perceive how greatly the word there improves the sentence. 

c There are persons in the room , who can not read or write. Here the 
word there, though having no reference to place, modifies very much, the 
meaning of the sentence : for, if we omit there, the sentence, now affirm- 
ative, becomes interrogative ; thus, • Are persons in the room who can not 
read or write V 

d The word there, when referring to place, always modifies the wicamw^ 
of the sentence in which it occurs. 



(Modifiers) etymology. 183 

/ Eighth; of degree : as, much, little, sufficiently, greatly, 
enough, almost, less, more. 

m Ninth ; of doubt or contingency : as, haply, perhaps, per- 
adventure, possibly, perchance. 

n Tenth ; of affirmation, (by way of emphasis :) as, truly, 
indeed, undoubtedly, doubtless, doubtlessly, certainly, really, 
surely. 

Eleventh; of negation : as, not, by no means, not at all, 
in no wise. 

SIMPLE FORM — Positive Degree. 

309 The simple form of a modifier represents the time, 
rnanner, or character of one fact or event without reference 
to that of another ; as, 

James visits us often. Henry speaks fluently. Seth writes well. 

COMPARATIVE FORM — Comparative Degree. 

310 The comparative form of a modifier, or combination 
of modifiers, represents the time, manner, or cliaracter of 
one event as compared with that of another ; as, 

George visits us often-er than James does. William speaks more fluently 
than Henry. Julia writes better than Seth. 

SUPERLATIVE FORM — Superlative Degree. 

311 The superlative form of a modifier, or combination 
of modifiers, represents one fact or event as exceeding all 
others in the time, manner, or character referred to ; as, 

Julius visits us often-es^ Edward speaks most fluently. Robert writes best. 

DIMINUTIVE FORM. 

312 The diminutive form of a combination of modifiers 
represents the time, manner, or character of an event as less 
in degree tlian that which tlie simple form expresses ; as, 

Harriet writes somewhat often. Hiram writes ra^^er elegantly. *a 



*a Modifiers, as single words, have no diminutive form ; for we never 
say, he writes elegantly-^sA — he visits us often-isA. 

b Very few modifiers have, as single words, any change of form : but 
the change or variation in sense, is generally caused by associating with the 
principal modifier, an auxiliar which affects its meaning ; as, frequently, 
more frequently, most frequently, less frequently, least frequently, some- 
what frequently, rather too frequently, &c. &c. 



184 



ETYMOLOGY. 



^Modifiers. ) 



THE DECLENSION OF MODIFIERS 

313 Is varying their forms, or the forms of their combi- 
nations, to give different representations of the facts to which 
they refer. 

314 Modifiers, like adnames, are declined by the addition of r,. 
or er, and st^ or est ; by a change of the entire word, or by the 
prefix of more and mosty less and least. Thus, 

315 DECLENSION OF MODIFIERS. 



Simple form. 


Comparative form. 


Superlative form. 


Soon 


sooner 




soonest 


Often, oft 


oftener 




oftenest 


Fast 


faster 




fastest 


Far 


farther 




farthest 


Well*a 


better 




best 


Ill^a \ 
Badly \ 


worse 




worst 


Swiftly 


more swiftly 


most swiftly 


Industriously 


less industriously 


least industriously 



316 Names, without preceding relatives, or dependence on as- 
serters, become modifiers when used to show the time, place, man- 
ner, proportion, tendency or directioa, or extent of a fact or e- 
vent. Thus, 

NAMES. MODIFIERS. 

James started for London yesterday. 

Seth came home last July.. 

Helen studied many hours. 

Abraham lived a hundred and seventy-five years. 



Yesterday 
July 
Hours 
Years 
Home 
Foot 
Horse ^ 
and \ 
Back i 
Piece 
Acre 
Pound 
Day 
West 



William v^'ent home. 

George came home zrfoot. 

Henry journeyed west horseback., 

James sold his tape for three cents z-piece.]A, 

Julius sold his farm for forty dollars an acre. 

I bought raisins for ten cents d^ pound. 
Richard worked a month for two dollars a day. 

Samuel travelled five hundred miles west. 



*a Well and ill have, respectively, the same forms as modifiers, that they 
have as adnames. 

b Well, as an adname, denoting a state of health, is defective^ or not de,'^ 
clinable ; for, if a man is ivell, he can not become better. 

c Illy should never be used. One might as well use welly/ 
[For JVote fA, see next joage.]. 



(^Modifiers.) etymology. 180 

PRINCIPAL MODIFIERS.* 

317 A principal modifier is one, which, of itself, modifies 
the meaning of the sentence, or clause of a sentence, Iq 
which it occurs ; as, 

James writes well. Julia sings delightfully. Sarah learns fast. 

AUXILIAR MODIFIERS.* 

318 An auxiliar modifier is one which is prefixed to a 
principal to qualify that, and, through that, to exert its mod- 
ifying influence on the sentence ; as, 

John writes very well. Helen sings most delightfully. Jane learns re- 
markably fast. 

319 Auxiliar modifiers, like auxiliar adnames, are called First, 
Second, and Third, according to their nearness to, or distance trom, 
the principal ; (as may be seen below*) 

320 Principal modifiers, like priacipal adnames and asserters, 
may be used without auxiliars, or may have one, two, or three 
auxiliars. Thus, 



I. James walked | ^ I farther than Julius. 

James walked J | ten ?nilesF arther. 

James walked '§. more than ten miles f arther. 

James walked much more than ten miles farther. 

321 Modifiers, Adnames, and Asserters are strikingly similar 
with respect to their distinctions and use as principals and auxil- 
iars. Thus, 

[For reference fA, see preceding page.] 
fA A and piece, have the same meaning when apart or separate, as when 
united by a hyphen, [-] as a-piece; being used only to modify the meaning^ 
of the sentence describing the sale, indicating that the articles mentioned 
were individually, separately, singly, respectively, sold for the sum describ- 
ed. So is it with the words, an acre, a pound, a bushel, a rod, a day, &c. 
&c — the words, a day, as here used, meaning the same as daily — he work- 
ed a month for two dollars daily — a day. 

B Words must beparsed according to their meaning and relation, (to oth- 
er words,) unitedly considered. 

c Custom, in the printing art, hag introduced the hyphen [-] between a 
and piece, used together as a modifier, and has not introduced it between 
the words a and an, and the names to which they refer ; as, a day, an a- 
cre : yet, remember that the hyphen, as here used, does not change the 
meaning or character of the words in the least. 

*The principal was formerly called primary, and the auxiliar, secondaru. 
16* 



186 ETYMOLOGY. {Modlfiei'S.) 

Modifiers^ Adnames and Asserters^ Compared. 

SUBSTITUTES. AUXLLIARS. AUXILIARS. AUXlHARS. PRINCIPALS. 



II. I walked 
I walked 
I walked 
I walked 

NAMES. 

III. Gloves, 
Gloves, 
Gloves, 
Gloves, 



much 



FARTHER. 



ten miles farther. • «^ 



more than te7i miles yartu^b.. 
more than few 7?ii/es farther. 






remarkably 
very remarkably 



deep 
deep 
deep 



BLACK. 



'■] » 

:. I 

BLACK. 1 ^ 
BLACK. J ^ 



SUBSTITUTES. 



IV. 



light 



might 
have 



WALK. 
WALKED. 



have w Ai-.is.ji,u. • *5 
have WALKED. ! ^ 
been walking J ^ 



Contrast of Modifiers and Substitutes, 

a The substitute not only stands in the place of a name, phrase, 
or sentence, but it also sustains, to the other words of a sentence, 
the same relation that would be sustained by a name ; as, I saw 
John yesterday and conversed with him — with John. Here it is 
seen that the substitute, him, depends on the relative with, just as 
the name John depends on the relative — I conversed with John — 
I conversed with ?iim. Yet, 

• b Though a modifier may stand to represent the meaning of a 
phrase, it never has the same relation and dependence that a name 
Would have. Thus, I was in Utica yesterday, and saw John there. 
Here it is seen that the word there, has the meaning of the name 
Utica and the word in ; but the word there does not have the 
8ame relation and dependence that the name would have : for when 
I use the name Utica, I must use the relative in, for the name to 
depend on ; but when I use the modifier there, I may not use the 
relative in. Thus, I may say, I saw John m Utica, but I may not 
say, I saw John in there. 

c Remember, then, that a word, to be a substitute, according 
to the definition of a substitute, must not only express the mean- 



{Modifiers.) ETirMOLoGf . ISt 

ing of a narije, phrase, or sentence, but must stand, in relation to- 
the other words of the sentence, just as a name would stand. 

d {^(gF^The leasonof this contrast's being given, is, that the 
modifiers of time and place, and the simple substitutes^ approach 
nearer each other, than any other two parts of speech ; and pupils 
often fail to distinguish one from the other, on account of their 
similarity. Yet, if the pupil will try a name in the place of the 
word of which he is in doubt, his perplexity will be removed } 
for a name can never make good sense, as a name, in the place 
of a mere modifier, though it will make good sense in the place 
■which IS occupied by any simple substitute representing either 
time or place. 

Different uses of Modifiers. 

a A modifier always has a general reference to the sense of the entire sen- 
tence, or clause, in which it occurs ; but it has, usually, a move particular 
reference to some word or association, than to another. Thus, ' James is 
not at home.' Here the modifier refers, directly and plainly, to the name 
James, denoting the person of whom the remark is made : it refers, also, 
to the asserter is, as a part of the expression ; but it throws its c^i(/' modi- 
fying influence upon the meaning of the two words at home. I do not 
mean that James is not; but I mean that he is not ati^uoinear) home — (not 
another place.) My only object in speaking of the man at all, is to deny 
his being at home. The modifier is always intended to carry out the chief 
intention of the speaker or writer. [See XLIV-V-VI of the Lecture.] 

h Cd^A mere modifier never represents a fact or event. Other words do 
that. A modifier lends its aid to qualify, limit, extend, or deny what other 
words express as a fact. It may express a variety of shades of meaning with 
respect to what other words represent. Thus — The eagle soared. The ea- 
gle soared high. The eagle soared sublimely high. The swallow flew low. 
The swallow flew very low. James worked well. He worked remarka- 
bly Well. I walked /ar. James walked very far. John went farther. 
Henry went 7nuch farther. Julius went Zess/ar than I. Selh reads wmcA. 
Julius reads little. George reads less. 

c Julia sings loell at church. Well, as here used, has a particular refer- 
ence to the sense of the asserter sing, but it qualifies the fact of singing in the 
circumstance described — at church. George says Julia does not sing well 
at church. JVb^, as here used, is intended, not to deny that Julia sings, 
[this very sentence is an admission that she does sing, and sing at church :] 
but to deny what the qualifymg, commending term, well, otherwise expres- 
ses, and carries the ideas back beyond what would be expressed withoutqual- 
ification. If I say, "she sings at church," I neither praise, nor dispva.\se 
the performance : but when I use not, apparently only to undo the praise, 
I really dispraise the action. [Turn back and read, in the Lecture, what 
is said of the modifier. See also Rules of Syntax.] 

d Modifiers are sometimes used as asserters ; as, *' Charge ! Chester : 
charge ! On! Stanley : on/" " Up! or freedom breathes her last I" 

Down with ^ fUg u 1 1 A modifier and a relative used together as an 
Lower ) asserter, in the commanding mode absolute. 



188 ETYMOLOGY. {Modifiers.) 

Questions on Modifiers, 

What is a modifier 1 306. What is said of the modification of sound, in 
*a 7 What is said of the word there, in h 7 in c ? in d7 What distinc- 
tions do modifiers admit ? 307. What distinctions, in their subdivisions, 
do they admit ? 308, letters a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, i,j, k, I, m, n, o. What 
is the simple form of a modifier or combination of modifiers? 309. What 
is the comparative form ? 310; the superlative ? 311 ; the diminutive ? 312; 
What is taught by *a 7 by b 7 

What is the declension of modifiers ? 313. What is taught by 314 ? — 
Recite or read the examples given in 315. What is said of well and ill? 
*a, p 184; of well 7 b; of illy 7 c. What is a principal modifier ? 317 ; 
an auxiliar ? 318. What is said in 319 ? in 320 ? What is taught by 321? 
See diagrams I, II, III, IV. How many auxiliarsdo you find in connection 
with a principal mo<^i/?er ? I, II. How many with a principal adname? 
III. How many with a principal asserter 7 IV. What is said in a, of the 
Contrast of Modifiers and Substitutes 7 p 186. What is taught by b 7 by 
c? by d7 What is taught by a, of the Different uses of Modifiers, ? p 187. 
hyb? c? d? 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



1 Julia studies attentively at school. 2 George learns faster than Wil- 
liam ever learned. 3 James started for London yesterday. 4 Seth came 
home last July. 5 Helen studied many hours. 6 Abraham lived a hun- 
dred and seventy-five years. 7 William went home. 8 George came home 
afoot. 9 Henrj' journeyed west horseback. 10 James sold his tape for 
three cents a-piece. 11 Julius sold his farm for forty dollars an acre. 12 
Harriet is certainly my friend. 13 Samuel is not in New York. 14 John 
is eissuredly an orator. 

1 Attentively is a modifier, of manner, in the simple form, 
(declined in combination: Simple, attentively ; Comparative, Twore 
attentively ; Superlative, most attentively :) principal, qualifying 
or modifying the meaning of the sentence in which it occurs, but 
having a particular reference to the asserter studies. 

2 Faster is a modifier, of manner, in the comparative form : 
(declined: Simple, /as/; Comparative, faster ; Superlative, fast- 
est ;) principal, modifying the meaning of the sentence, but refer- 
ring particularly to the asserter learns. 

3 Yesterday is a particular name, used here as a modifier, of 
time, only to qualify the entire fact referred to, telling when this 
fact occurred. 

4 Last, as here used, is a definite specifying adname, belong- 
ing to the word July, as a mere name : yet, 



{Modifiers.) etymology. 189 

July is a particular name, (of one month distinguished from the 
other months,) but here used with the word last, as a modifier , of 
time, principal, qualifying the entire fact referred to. 

5 Many is an indefinite specifying adname, belonging to the 
word hours, as a mere name ; but, 

Hours, is a name, (plural of hour,) used here, with the word 
many, as a modifier, of time, principal, qualifying the fact of Hel- 
en's studying. [Alone, is a modifying adname, belonging to the 
name Helen.'] 

6 A is an indefinite specifying adname, belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the word hundred, as a mere name ; (of a number:) 
yet the phrase 

A hundred and seventy-five, taken together, is an adname, 
specifying, numeral, belonging to, and depending on, the word 
years, as a mere name : yet the word 

Years is a name, (plural of year,) and here used with the 
phrase a hundred and seventy-five, as a modifier, to qualify the 
fact mentioned — to show how long Abraham lived. 

7 Home is a name, used, here, as a modifier of place, modify- 
ing the sentence, or qualifying the entire fact of William's going 
— showing where he went. 

8 A-FooT is an adname, [a,] and a name, [foot,'] used in a 
combination as a modifier, qualifying the entire fact mentioned — 
showing how the man came home. [The hyphen (-) unitingthe 
two words, a and foot, adds nothing to the sense. The hyphen 
is put there now, only because it has been put there so long. So 
is it with the word a-piece.] 

9 Horseback is a name, (formed by the union of the two 
names, horse and back,) used here as a modifier, modifying the 
meaning of the sentence in which it occurs — showing how the 
man travelled west. 

10 x4-PiECE is parsed like a-foot. [See 8, above.] 

11 An is an indefinite specifying adname, belonging to, and 
depending on, the word acre, as a name — yet, the word 

Acre is parsed in combination with the word an, as a modifier, 
just as much as though the two words were united by a hyphen : 
[an-acre, a-foot, a-piece,] and are used only to qualify the fact 
of the man's selling his farm. 

12 Certainly is a modifier, of affirmation or emphasis, prin- 
cipal, referring to the whole sentence, but qualifying, particularly^ 



190 ETYMOLOGY. {Relatives.) 

the words my friend. [I do not affirm so positively that Harriet 
iS) merely, but that she is certainly my friend.'] 

13 Not is a modifier, of negation, referring to the whole sen- 
tence, but more particularly the words in Neic-York. [I do not 
wish to deny that Samuel is. I know he is, for he is with me : 
I wish to deny only that he is in New-York.'] 

14 Assuredly is 2imodifier, of affirmation or assurance, of em- 
phasis, referring generally to the words John and is, but throwing 
its chief modifying influence upon the name orator, denoting the 
trait of character, to express which, is my only object in mention- 
ing the man at all. 

LESSON XXXIII. 

Henry writes elegantly, when striving, before his tutor, to excel his cous- 
ins. John : Helen sings melodiously at church. Seth behaved very awk- 
wardly at the social concert, Maria's friend accosted me very civilly, and 
kindly invited me to his house. Time flies rapidly, and should therefore be 
diligently improved. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

James went home last night, at twelve o'clock. His father rose and let 
him in. He sat some time, and finally explained the cause of his having 
been out so late. His father reprimanded him mildly ; and at length al- 
lowed him to retire to rest.* 



RELATIVES— Prepositions. 

322 A relative is a part of speech used to show the rela- 
tion of an event to an object, or of one object to another ; as, 

I went to Utica in Oneida county. Helen walked across the street. — 
George resides in New-York on Manhattan island. 

323 Relatives, according to their meaning and reference, ad- 
mit the following distinctions : 

Principal, They are also called, 
First Auxiliar, Adname Relatives, 

Second Auxiliar, Modifying Relatives, 

Third Auxiliar. Independent Relatives. 

PRINCIPAL RELATIVES. I 

324 A principal relative is one which, of itself, shows the 

*J\ight, in, time, finally, out, late, mildly, and at length, are all prin- 
cipal modifiers, 
t Principals were formerly called primaries. 



{Relatives.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 



191 



relation of an event to an object, or of one object to anoth- 
er; as, 

Jane bought a book of Henry Williams, for her brother, a? school, near 
Boston. I went to London for my library. Seth resides beyond Rome. 

AUXILIAR RELATIVES.* 

325 An auxiliar relative is one which is prefixed to a prin- 
cipal, to qualify the sense expressed by the principal ; as, 

James went almost to London. Seth resides far beyond Rome. Har- 
riet met her father very near the city. 

326 TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL RELATIVES. 



About 


Before 


Into 


Subsequent to 


Above 


Behind 


Instead of 


Since 


Across 


Below 


In lieu of** 


Throughout 


According to 


Beneath 


In relation to 


Till 


Aboard 


Beside 


In spite of 


To 


Aboard of 


Betwixt 


Near 


Toward 


Ahead of 


Between 


Next 


Towards 


After 


Beyond 


Nigh [ing 


Touching 


Against 


Besides 


Notwithstand- 


Through 


Along 


But for 


Of 


Under 


Amid 


By 


Off 


Underneath 


Amidst 


Concerning 


Opposite 


Unto§ 


Among 


Down 


Out of 


Until 


Amongst 


During 


OntoJ 


Up 


Around 


Devoid of 


Past 


Upon 


Aslant 


Due 


Per [by, or 


With 


Athwart 


Ere 


through] 


Within 


Astride 


For 


Previous to 


Without 


As for 


From 


Prior to 


With respect to 


As to 


From between! Respecting 


With regard to 


At 


In 


Round 


Via, [by way of] 


327 Independent Relatives : 


But, except, excepting, save, saving. 


328 Auxiliar relatives, lik 


e auxiliar adnames and modifiers, are 



* Auxiliar s were formerly called secondaries. ** Vice is used in this sense. 

fOther relatives may be joined to express a two-fold relation ; as, the dog 
came from under the house . 

XOnto has been long and properly used as a relative ; though it has nev- 
er before been recognized as one, and allowed its place in the list. It is 
better to say, « the child fell from the chair on to the floor,' than to say, 
• the child fell from the chair upon \up-ov{] the floor' — for he did not fall up 
— but doiun to and on the floor. [See Syntax.] 

§This word should never be used. It weakens the grave style ; and is 
intolerable in any other. 



192 



ETYMOLOGY. 



{Relatives.) 



called First, Second, and Third, according to their nearness to, 
or distance from, the principal. 

329 Principal relatives, like principal asserters, adnames, and 
modifiers, may be used without auxiliars, or may have one, two, 
or three auxiliars. Thus, 



I. James is | | I beyond Boston. 

James is J I two miles beyond Boston. 

James is p less than two miles beyond Boston. 

James is considerably less than two miles beyond Boston. 

330 Relatives, modifiers, adnames, and asserters, are striking- 
ly similar in their distinctions, as principals and auxiliars, and in 
the number of their auxiliars ; principals of each of these four parts 
of speech being allowed three auxiliars. Thus, 

Relatives f Adnames, Modifiers, and Asserters, Compared. 

NAMES. AUXILIARS. AUXILIARS. AUXILIARS. PRINCIPALS. 



II. James is 






beyond " 


. 


James is 




two miles 


BEYOND g 


1 


James is 


less than 


two miles 


BEYOND p 


^1 


James is considerably less than 


two miles 


BEYOND 


s^ 


substitutes. I 
III. I walked 


• 


• 


FARTHER. 1 ^ 
FARTHER. «^ 
FARTHER. § 


I walked 




ten miles 


I walked 


more than 


ten miles 


I walked much 


more than 


ten miles 


FARTHER. J ^ 


NAMES. : 
IV. Gloves, 


• 


I 


BLACK. ^ ^ 
BLACK. • S 
BLACK. |.§ 
BLACK. J ^ 


Gloves, 
Gloves, 
Gloves, very 


remarkably 
remarkably 


deep 
deep 
deep 


substitutes. : 
V. I 

I 


• 


• 
have 


WALK. ^ ^ 
WALKED. « 


I 

I might 


might 
have 


have 
been 


WALKED, j 
WALKING J 


00 



{Relatives.) etymology. 193 

Principals and Auxiliars. 
331 Let the learner remembe'r that though each of the four 
parts of speech, named in 330, may have one, two, or three aux- 
iliars, yet that all words of each class may not have the same num- 
ber of auxiliars as other words of the same class. *« 

*a This is seen in the fact that the meaning of certain words will not 
allow the same extent and variety of qualification as that of other words — 
for, though I may say, "I would hev>are of a false friend," using the 
principal asserter hetvare with the one auxiliar lUGuld; yet I may not say, 
" I MIGHT HAVE BEEN bewariug^' — using the improper word bewaring 
with tlwee auxiliars. I may say, " James is perfectly quiet" — using the 
principal adnarne quiet with the one ^uxiWar perfectly ; but I may not say, 
" James is very perfectly quiet'' — as the meaning of the word ^m'e?, 
with perfectly, as an auxiliar, will not admit so many qualifications. I may 
say, " John understands me perfectly ;''^ but I may not say, "John under- 
stands me yERY perfectly" — as the meaning of the principal modifier, ^er- 
fectly, admits no qualification. I may say, " James is very near me" — 
but I may not say "James is very rejmaricably near me" — for there 
is nothing remarkable in the fact of his being near me. 

b {jd^The four diagrams, under 330, exhibit a fixed and beautiful trait 
in both language and the constitution of the mind. In the use of 
words to modify the meaning of sentences, or to qualify existence, facts, 
objects, or relations, one word, (the principal,) may be used to express the 
idea intended ; but no principal, thus used, may have more than three aux- 
iliars to assist in varving its meaning. 

c Qcf-This trait in language is but the adaption of language to a principle 
fixed in the human mind which allows but three stages of magnifying, di- 
minishing, or varying the expression of any one idea. 

d Two stages or steps may not always give the full force — three give the 
climax of representation, and fix the limit beyond which the mind refuses 
to advance : the fourth step, if taken, must deaden, instead of kindling, 
emotion — must prevent, instead of producing, eflTect — this being but the 
result of the violence done to the constitution of the mind. Speakers and. 
writers should carefully avoid the fourth step, which, taken, would be but 
passing " from the sublime to the ridiculous. " 

e The language abounds with examples in which the climax is reached by 
expressing the same idea twice, or at most, three times, in immediate suc- 
cession, by the same word : but no instances can be cited, in good composi- 
tion, in which the word is thus employed more than three times. Thus, 

I. Away — aTcay ! my breath was gone, 
I knew not where we hurried on — 
'Twas* scarcely yet the dawn of day — 

But on he foamed — away — away ! — Mazeppa. 

II. We gain the top — a boundless plain 
Spreads through the shadows of the night — 
And onward — onward— omyv a.^^ \ seems 
Like precipices in our dreams. — Ib. 

III. And one cried to another saying " holy — /jo/?/— holy ! is the Lord 
of hosts." — Bible. \JVote continued on next page."] 

*It was. ' ' ' '~' '^ 

17 



194 ETYMOLOGY. {Relatives.) 

ADNAME RELATIVES. 

332 An adname relative is one which acts the part of an 
ADNAME and a relative, at the same time ; as, 

James is like Henry, but unlike George. The money was due Samuel 
last week.*a! 

MODIFYING RELATIVES. 

333 A modifying relative is one which acts the parts 

yVote continued Jrom last page.'] 

IV. And they rest not day or night — saying, *' holy — holy — holy! — Lord 
God Almighty."— Ib. 

/ This principle is often illustrated by popular assemblies, in giving vent 
to their gladsome emotions, or in tendering their applause of men or ac- 
tions — they give ^'^ three cheers,'^ or '■'■ three times three'^ — in the latter 
case, each " three cheers''' ' ' 
the last three, as the climax of the whole series. 



*a When 1 say, *' Henry is tall, and James is st«2i7ar," it is seen that 
the word similar is a mere adname, showing, only, as a quality of James, 
what is a quality of Henry — his tallness. When I say, " James is similar 
to Henry," the word similar is a mere adname, and the word to a mere 
relative^ showing the relation of the man James^ as described, to the man 
Henry — yet, 

h When I say — " James is like Henry," the word like is seen to be a full 
adname ; used, hke similar ^ to describe the man James by comparing him 
with Henry, whose character, (in the quality referred to,) is known or ad- 
mitted : and, at the same time, like is seen to be a full relative, used, like 
the word to, to express a relation of one person to the other in regard to the 
quality mentioned. I repeat, 

C like ^ From this, it is seen that the word like 

c James is< > Henry, is equal, (in meaning and relation,) to 

(f similar to ) the adname similar, whose meaning it 

represents, and equal also to the relative to, whose meaning it expresses, 
and whose place it most admirably fills. Like similar^ it expresses com- 
parison ; and, like^o, it shows relation and admits the word Henry in the 
objective case after it, and depending on it. 

d When I say, " The money is now «?we," the word due is a mere ad- 
name, showing a trait or characteristic of the money, as due money — and, 

e When I say, *' The money was due, last spring, to the different mem- 
bers of the family," the word due is a mere adname^ and the word to a 
mere relative: yet, 

/ When I say, '* The money wasrfwe Samuel last week," (not having any 
word or phrase between the word c?w€,and the name of the object,) the word 
due means just as much as the two words due and to would mean, if used. 
This shows the word due to be in meaning and influence, a full adname, 
and a full relative — an adname relative. 

g [CF[These remarks are deemed sufficient as a general description of this 
class of words.] 



{Relatives.) etymology. 195 

of a MODIFIER and a relative, at the same time ; a?, 
James walks like Henry, but wilike George. Samuel did the work ac- 
cording to his instrucions.*a 

INDEPENDENT RELATIVES. 

334 An independent relative is one which represents 
the latter object to which it relates, as being independ- 



*a When I say, *• Henry walks gracefully, and James walks similarly,'* 
the word similarly is seen to be a mere modifier, qualifying the fact of 
James' walking. When I say, "James walks similarly to Henry ," the 
word similarly is seen to be a mere modifier, and the word to, a mere ret' 
ative, showing the relation of the fact of James' walking, (as described,) to 
the fact of the walking performed by Henry — yet, 

b When I say, •' James walks like Henry," the word like is seen to be 
a full modifier, like the word similarly, and a full relative, hke the word to, 
I repeat, 

C like ^ Here the word like qualifies, 

c * James walks < V Henry.* not the man, (as in the exam- 

( similarly to 3 pie of the adname relative,) but 

the fact or event of the man*s walking. So far it acts the part of the mod- 
ifier similarly : The word like also shows, hke the word to, the relation of 
the event described to another event referred to by th(j use of the name 
Henry, used in this connection. So far it acts the part of a relative. 

d The word like, in the diagram c, has the full meaning and influence of 
the modifier similarly, and of the relative to — It is a modifier and a rela- 
tive — a modifying relative. 

e When I say, " Samuel received his instructions, and did the work ac- 
eordingly," the word accordingly is a mere modifier, qualifying the fact of 
Samuel's doing the work — but, 

/ When I say, *' Samuel did the work according toh'is instructions,*' the 
word according may not be separated from its associate word to. Both 
must be used together, or as a combinaiion, as a modifying relative ; the 
modifying part of the combination being in the word according, and the 
relative part in the word to. The two words may not be separated without 
destroying the sense — they must be parsed together as one part of speech — 
as a relative — as a modifying relative. 

g Previously, subsequently, independently, and some other modifiers, 
derived from adnamesby adding ly, lose their last syllable in being joined 
with mere relatives, to constitute modifying relatives ; as, previously, jore- 
vious to — I started previous to John's return, &c. 

h The learner should be careful to notice that a word or phrase is an ad' 
name relative if it qualifies an object, and shows relation ; as, ' James 
is like Henry' — and that the word or phrase is a modifying relative, if it 
qualifies an event or fact, (something done,) while it shows relation ; as, 
' James walks like Henry.' [In the first example, like qualifies an ob' 
ject, by comparing one with another — in the last it qualifies an everit, by 
comparing one with another.] 



196 ETYMOLOGY. (Relatives.} 

ENT of, or separate from, the fact or event mentioned ; as, 

All of the family, ej:cept Helen, went to Niagara Falls. None of the 
cousins, but Maria, attend school. *a 

335 Relatives may be used in so absolute a sense, as not to 
depend on any preceding sentence expressing a fact or event; as, 

! for a lodge in some vast wilderness. As to the traveller's death ; it 
was, most likely, caused by his being thrown from his carriage. As forme 
and my house, we will serve the Lord.f 

836 ADDITIONAL RELATIVES. 

Like Inside Alongside 

Unlike Inside of Alongside of 

Than Outside For all 

Worth Outside of Despite. 

These are used as relatives, in addition to what are given in the 
tables of relatives. Thus, 

1 will do that, /or all you. I rode inside (within) the stage. We came 
alongside the ship. 

*a The independent relatives are so named because they represent the 
latter objects to which they refer, as being independent of, and unconnec- 
ted with, the event or fact in relation to which they are mentioned — thus, 

b When I say, of a certain family, ' All of them went to Niagara falls,'' 
I include every member of the family in the remark — yet, 

c Suppose this family to consist of five persons, the name of one of them 
being James. Then, when I say, ' All of the family, but James, went to 
Niagara,' I mean tiiat/owr of the five went. The word, the independent 
relative, but, excludes, from the remark, the person of James. The name 
family, as used, means /ye persons, oi four of whom I affirm that they 
went. It may stand thus : 

d All of the family [Iirwent to Niagara falls — {Five went.] 

e All of the family ^ {Kl^went to Niagara falls — \Four went] — the inde- 

James, J 
pendent relative but, representing the man James as being independent of, 
separate from , or unconnected with, the fact affirmed — representing the 
man James as not being one of the travelling party. Having mentioned 
the family, I except or take out the man James, before I describe the event 
of which he was independent — with which he was unconnected. [I do not 
mean as the oM ^Aeon's^s teach — that all of the family went to Niagara 
falls, but that James, (one of the family,) did not go to Niagara falls.] By 
mentioning the family of /we and excepting the one who did not go, I de-. 
scribe the travelling party ; and having described the party, I affirm of them,. 
what they did. 
/ I saw all the family ) —that is, I saw four, of the family of five. 

James. ) 
fin the first example, Jor refers to the exclamation O, and shows the re- 
lation of the (Resize, expressed by the whole phrase, to the object desireds. 



{Relatives.) etymology. 197 

Questions on Relatives, 

What is a relative ? 322. Give examples. What distinctions do they ad- 
mit ? 323. What is a principal relative ? 324. What is an auxiliar rela- 
tive "? 325. What words are used as relatives ? 326, 327, 335. What is 
said of unto ? § p 191. What is taught by 328 ? hy 329 ? by 330 '? Give 
examples of a principal of each of these four parts of speech used without 
au auxiliar — used with one auxiliar — with two auxiliars — with three. 

What is taught by 331 ? by note *a? hy b? c? d? el Give the exam- 
ples in I, in II, III, IV. What is said in f? What is an adname relative ? 
832. Give examples. What is taught by note *a ? 6 .? c? tZ.? e .?/.? g:.? What 
is a mcKlifying relative ? 333. Give examples. What is taught by note *a 7 
hy bl cl d? el fl gl hi What is an independent relative ? 334. Give 
examples. Why are they so named .? *a. What is taught hy bl hy cl d? 
e 1 /? What is taught by 335 ? Give examples. What words are some- 
times used as relatives, in addition to those given in the table on page 191 ? 
See 33G. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



LESSON XXXV. 

*' 0«r youth is like the dream of the hunter on the hill of heath. He sleeps 
in the mild beams of the sun. He awakes amidst the raging storm. Red 
lightnings fly around him. Trees shake their heads to the wind. He looks 
back with joy to the hour of the sun and the pleasant dreams of his rest." 

Like is an adname relative, principal,* used to qualify youth, 
as a period of life, by comparing it with the dream to which like 
shows its relation. 

Dream is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in 
the singular form, in the objective case, referring to, and depen- 
ding on, the relative like. 

Of is a relative, showing the relation of the dream, as mention- 
ed, to the hunter to whom it pertains — the dream belonging or 
pertaining to the person, the hunter. 

On is a relative, showing the relation of the hunter, as men- 
tioned, to the hill or elevation of ground described, that he is on. 

Of is a relative, showing the relation of the hill, as mentioned, 
to the heath or shrubbery with which it is covered. 

In is a relative, showing the relation of the beams, as men- 

*The distinctions of relatives as principal and auxiliar, need not be men- 
tioned after the pupil has become familiar with the distinctions; except 
where principals and auxiliars are both found in connection. 
17* 



198 ETYMdtofiv. (Meiaiives.i 

tioned, to the sun from which they emanate, and whose beams' 
they are. 

Amidst is a relative, showing the relation of the fact of the 
hunter's awaking, to the state of the atmosphere, the weathfet, in- 
dicated by the name storm. 

Around is a relative, sliowing the relation of the fact of the 
lightning's playing, to the man, the hunter, denoted by the substi- 
tute him. 

To is a relative, showing the relation between the fact or e- 
vent of the trees shaking their heads, and the wind as the object 
to which they shake them. 

With is a relative, showing the relation of the fact of the hun- 
ter's looking back, (reflecting,) and the emotion, the joy, with 
which he does it* 

To is a relative, showing the relation between the event or fact 
of the hunter's looking back, and the peiiod, (the hour,) and the 
dreams, as the objects to which he turns his thoughts, or looks.-- 
It might stand thus, 

C the hour — of the sun, ^ 

* He looks back with joy to < | > 

( the dreams^^of his rest — y 

the two names, hour and dreams^ having the same relation' toy 
and dependence on, the relative to. 

gi^The two ofs are parsed alike as relatives — the first show- 
ing the relation of the period or hour, to the sun, [sunshine,] and 
the last, the relation of the dreams, to the rest considered in con- 
nection with them. 

LESSON XXXVI. 
Mr. Hammond resides very near Boston. His partner resides far beyond 
the city. The balloon ascended more than two thousand feet above the 
summit of the mountain. George descended less than twenty feet below 
the surface of the water. He went almost to the bottom. The dog came 
from between the house and barn. Washington, than whose fame nought 
earthly, purer has been seen^ was appropriately styled " The Father of his 
country.'* All my brothers, except William, have removed west.. 

Very is an auxiliar relative, qualifying the principal wear, and 
belongs to, and depends on, the principal. 

Near is a principal relative, showing the relation of the fact 
of Mr. Hammond's residing, to Boston, the city, as the object re- 
ferred to. 

Far is an auxiliar relative, qualifying the piineipal, beyond,^ 
and belongs to, and depends on, the principal. 



{ilelatives.) ]fe*t:viOLOGt. !# 

Beyond is a principal relative, showing the relation of Mr. 
Hammond's partner's residing, to the city, as the object referred 
to. 

More Than, as a combination, is znauxiliar relative, (second 
auxiliar,) qualifying the first auxiliar, two thousand feet, and 
through that, the principal relative above, and belonging with the 
first auxiliar, to the principal above, on which, with the first aux- 
iliar, it depends.* 

Two THOUSAND FEET is an auxiliar relative, (first auxiliar,) 
qualifying the principal relative above^ and belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the principal.^ 

Above is a principal relative, showing the relation which the 
fact of the balloon's ascending, bore to the top or summit, of the 
tnountain. 

From between is a relative phrase, at relative, express- 
ing a two-fold relation, or the relation which the dog's coming, 
bore to both the house atid the barn. [The dog did not come 
from the house, or frorti the barn.] He was not at^ or by, either 
of them : But he came 

C house 
from between the < § 
( barn. 

Than is a modifying relative, aiding to express comparison, 
and, at the satne time representing the object, (the fame of the 
man,) as bemg related to the fact or circumstance expressed by 
the sentence. Like any other relative, it has the name(/ame) in 
the objective case after it and depending on it. [Than usually 
denotes the exclusion of the object referred to ; but, as here usedj 
it denotes its ijiclusion.] See Rule XIV, Part 4. 

*More than, as a phrase, must be parsed together, from the fact that ei- 
ther word , as used , would be perfect nonsense alone, or without the other ; as^ 

* The balloon ascended mare ^— two thousand feet' — or * — than two thou- 
sand feet,' &c. while, * 'The balloon ascended more than two thousand feet 
above,' &c. would be perfect sense — which shows that the phrase more 
than, (as, also, less than,) thus used, mUst be parsed as one part of speech; 
as much as though they were joined by a hyphen. [-] 

flVjo <Aow5an(^, considered separate from, yet as relating to, the word 
feet, is an adname, belonging to the n^me feet: but, as here used, the whole 
phrase two thousand feet must be parsed together, as above : for, to say, 

* The balloon ascended two thousand — above the summit,* &c. (without 
telling two thousand what,) would be nonsense^^though it is perfect sense 
as it stands in the example, as first given. This shows that the phrase of 
three words, must be parsed together as one part of speech. 



200 ETYMOLOGY. {ConnccHves.) 

LESSON XXXVII. 

My uncle took with him to Trenton Fails, all his children, except Sarah, 
who was at school in Auburn. James stood very near the elephant ; and 
John was almost under him. The evils, like the blessings, of this life, ap- 
pear vast at a distance from us : yet to the weEtk and timid, those blessings 
diminish, and those evils increase, as they approach. 

LESSON xxxvm. 

*' Look not on the wine when it is red ; when it giveth its colour in the 
cup ; for, in the end, it biteth like a serpent, and stmgeth like an adder. — 
It will lead thee into destruction, and cause thee to utter perverse things. 
Thou wilt be Uke him who lieth down in the midst of the sea." 

LESSON XXXIX. 
Hope and fear hold alternate sway in the human mind. When we are in 
prosperity, we fear coming reverses of fortune which may plunge us into 
distress. When we are in the depths of adversity, we naturally hope for 
future good. When Hope is lost in certainty of possession, Fear begins her 
part. When Fear's worst scenes have been entered, Hope shows her gold- 
en light. 



CONJNECTIVES— Conjunctions. 

337 A connective is a part of speech used to connect mere 

words and sentences ; as, 

John ajid Julia are happy, because they are good. 'Seth went to church, 
hut Henry remained at home. 

338 Connectives are of three kinds : Simple^ Adname, and 
Modifying. 

SIMPLE CONNECTIVES. 

339 I. A simple connective is one which merely connects 
words or sentences : 

II. It connects, but expresses no distinct, additional idea; as, 

James and John are at school. Seth owns the carriage, but I use it. I 
told George that he must go home.*a 

*a There are those who believe the word that, as here used, to be a sub- 
stitute, a representative of the ideas expressed by the sentence following it. 
This, however, is mistaking the structure of the language : for, if the word 
that was to be regarded as a substitute, it should be superseded by the word 
this, followed by a colon ; as, I told George this: he must go home. 

b The fact that the word that is sometimes used after the sentence de- 
scribing the event to which the word that refers, proves nothing ; for, by 
being differently used, it may become a different part of speech. Thus, 
George must go home. I told him that. [Even here the word that is im- 



(^Connectives.) etymology. 201 

ADNAME CONNECTIVES. 

340 I. Aq adname connective is a phrase acting the 
parts of an adname and a connective, at the same time : 

II. It has the qualifying sense of an adname, and joins 
words Hke the mere connective ; as, 

George is as old as Seth. James is as well as Henry ever will be.*a 

properly used in the place of this; as, George must go home. I told him 
this: that is, the fact just mentioned and now under consideration.] 

c The word that may be used as a connective immediately after the woid 
this, as a substitute ; (which fact shows that the word can not, when thus 
used, be a substitute :) as, I told John to remember this ; tliat Henry and 
himself must return with me in the morning. No one will deny that this 
sentence is correct ; or contend that the word that, as here used, is a sub- 
stitute : and no one, having admitted that it is a connective, as here used,, 
will long believe that it is a substitute in sentences in which it expresses no 
distinct idea, but merely connects two sentences ; as, " This was said in 
proof ^Aa^ the prisoner was absent.'* I told George that he must go home. 

d Od^A simple connective never expresses a distinct idea in addition to 
what the words, connected, express ; as, 

John is at home a/zcZ Henry is at school. 
John is at home Henry is at school. 

Here it is seen that the last line expresses the same, exactly, that is expres- 
sed by the first line ; and that the word antZ, expressing no additional idea, 
merely connects the words which do mean something. 

e 1 told George that he must go home. 
I told George he must go home. 

Here it is seen that the word that expresses no additional idea — but mere- 
ly connects the two sentences expressing the two events. It is a mere con" 
nective — a simple connective. 

*a In the first example, the leading traits of the phrase, as old as, are its 
adname or qualifying influence, directed towards the person George, as 
compared with Seth ; and its connective influence, seen in its connecting 
the name Seth, with the name George — but, 

b Though we may parse the whole phrase, as old as, together, as an ad- 
name connective phrase — an adname connective, yet, in parsing separately, 
the words composing the phrase, the first word, as, must be railed what it 
is seen to be, an auxiliar adname, qualifying the principal old, and belong- 
ing, with that, to the name George: the word o/tZ being a principal adname 
belonging to the name George, and the last as, a modifying connective, join- 
ing the name Seth to the foregoing name, and, at the same time, instituting 
a comparison of the two persons in reference to the quality, (of age,.) men- 
tioned by the adname old. 

c From this it is seen, that the phrase as old as combines the three char- 
acteristics of adname, connective, and modifier — yet.in parsing the phrase,, 
as a whole, it may be named from its more prominent and apparent traits, 
an odna^ie connective phrase, an adname connective — the modifying trait 



202 ETYMOLOGY. {ConnecHves.) 

MODIFYING CONNECTIVES. 

341 A modifying connective is one which acts the parts 
of a modifier and a connective, at the same time ; as, 

I saw James where Henry had left him. Hannah was singing v^hen Ju- 
lia came in. Seth slept while Charles was writing the letter. I started 
for New York the instant George returned from Boston. *a 

not being fully and clearly developed till we come to parse the words indi- 
vidually. 

d The phrases as well as^ as high as, (when comparing objects , not 
facts,) as good as, as new as, and similar ones, are to be disposed of in the 
same general manner. 

e In the phrdises as old as, as good as, Sfc. the qualifying influence is 
graded or regulated by the reference of tiie phrase to the name or expres- 
sion following it. The phrase takes its degree or amount of qualifying influ- 
ence from the last named person or thing, and applies it to the first — the last 
named, being the standard by which we fix the character of our conceptions 
of the Jirst. Thus, 



-m- 



f I. George is^^Dlfts old as\i^Seih. 



^— ^- 



*a When I say — «« I told James to stop," I use a perfect sentence. When 
I say, " I told James where to stop," the sentence is perfect, and the word 
where a mere modifier; not used at all for the purpose of connecting, but 
merely to qualify the fact of James' stopping. [When may be used in the 
same manner] — yet, 

b When I say, ** I saw James where Henry had left him," I connect, by 
where, the two simple sentences, thereby forming them into one compound 
sentence : ' I saw James,' being one simple sentence, and * Henry had left 
him,' another: the word vjhemnmting them, and, at the same time deriv- 
ing its own meaning and influence from the last sentence, and by this 
meaning and influence qualifying the sense of the first sentence. Thus, 



c I saw J ames-^ where {ji^Hemy had left him. 
I . ^ 

^^ ' 

<t Here the last sentence marks the place in which the other event is rep- 
resented as having occurred. 

£ The other words of this class act their parts in the same general man- 
aer- Thus, 

[JVote continued on next page.} 



( Connectives. ) et ymol o g y. 203 

TABLES OF THE CONNECTIVES.* 

342 SIMPLE CONNECTIVES. 

And But Thatt 

As well as Still Yet. 

[JYote continued from last page."} 



f 1 shall go home-^|w;^e7i|^r^^tbe sun sets. 

g Here it is seen that the sentence « the sun sets,' marks, definitely, a 
particular moment, and the word when, deriving its definiteness from its 
reference to that moment, quahfies, by its meaning thus gained, the sense of 
the sentence before it ; showing when the event of my going home is to 
take place. The word tvhen, while connecting the two sentences, derives 
its influence from its reference to the /as^ sentence, and exerts this influence 
on the first sentence. 



I came home-^5e/bre(|i^John returned. 



i I started for 'N ew-York^^ the inst ant ^s^J dimes returned home. 

j Suppose the question should stand thus, " Where did you see James ?" 
The answer would be, " Where Henry had left him" — the last mentioned 
event giving the only definition of the jo/ace of the other event. The same 
mode of questioning may be adopted in reference to the other modifying 
connectives, indicatory of time and place. 

k These words connect and ^notZi/j/ just as much much when standing be- 
fore both sentences, as when standing between them ; as, When the sun 
sets, I shall go home. 

/ As well as is used variously — sometimes as a si»i;?/e connective — some- 
times as a modifying connective : 

I. James can read Latin and Greek. 
II. James can read Latin as well as Greek. 
III. James can read Latin as well as he can Greek. 
m Here, in the first example, the word and merely connects. It adds 
nothing to the sense. In the second example, the phrase as well as, like 
and, connects the two names Latin and Greek, and like and, it expresses 
no distinct, additional idea ; though it seems to indicate that the hearer or 

*These tables include most of the mere words, used as connectives ; yet 
as phrases, like as high as, as good as, as fast as, &c. may be increased 
indefinitely yi number, they are omitted. 

\That, when meaning nothing, but merely connecting, is a simple con- 
nective ; but when meaning time^ and connecting sentences, it may be a 
modifying connective ; as, James died in the morning of the day that I re- 
turned from Boston. 



204 


ETYMOLOGY. 

343 MODIFYING CONNECTIVES 


{Connectives.) 


As 


Lest 


The instant 


When 


As well as* 


Neither — nor 


The moment 


Whenever 


After 


Not 


Till 


Where 


Although 


Or 


Thatt 


Wherever 


Because 


Provided 


Than 


While 


Before 


Rather than 


Though 


Whilst 


Either— or 


Since 


Until 


Whether— or 


If 


Seeino^ that 


Unless 


Whereby 


In case 


So 


What though 


Wherein 



reader understood, already, that the subject of remark can read Greek, and 
that the purpose in speaking is only to mention that he can read Latin, also : 
yet, in the second example, as in the first, there is no comparison expres- 
sed : but, by as well as, in the last example, (III) the two sentences are 
connected, and the meaning of ihejirst is modified or qualified by the sense 
of as well as, derived from the last sentence and applied to the ^r*^, which 
is judged of by the last, as the standard of comparison. 

n As well as, regarded as a combination or phrase, must be parsed as a 
simple connective, when used as in example II, and as a modifying connec- 
tive, when used as in example III : but when so used as to be a modifying 
connective, the individual words, composing the phrase, may be parsed sep- 
arately. Thus, 

I. James did my work — one sentence. John did yours — an- 
other sentence — but no connection or comparison. 

II. James did my work as John did yours. Here the two sen- 
tences are united by as, which, as a connective, joins the two sentences, and 
a^s di modifier, expresses a comparison of one fact with the other. Thus 
far, though comparison is expressed, there is no qualification of either id.ct. 

III. James did my work well. John did yours well. Here 
both facts are qualified, but there is no comparison or connection. 

IV. John did your work well. James did mine as well. Here 
are found both qualification and comparison ; but there is no connection — 
the word well being a principal modifier, qualifying the fact mentioned, 
and the word as, an auxiliar modifier, qualifying well, and through it, the 
fact. 

V. James did my work as well as John did yours. Here we 
have the principal modifier well, the auxiliar modifier, the first as, and the 
modifying connective, the last as ; which, while it connects the two sen- 
tence?, institutes a comparison of the two facts in reference to the qualifi- 
cation expressed by the principal modifier well. 

p I. (]if=Let the learner be particular to remember, that the word as, u- 
sed in II, letter o, above, connects the two sentences— and is a connective — 
that it acts the part of a modifier in comparing the two facts mentioned — 
that, of course, as, thus used, is a modifying connective. 
[JVote continued on next page.} 

* t For these references see notes * and f on preceding page. 



{Connectives.) etymology. j|03f 

344 A modifying connective is sometimes placed in one |(artof 
a sentence, in such a manner as to require a corresponding con- 
nective in another part.* 

345 Such are ^ 
Though — yet, or nevertheless Whether — or 
Either — or Neither — nor 

As — so . So — as. 



Questions on Co?i7iectives, 

What is a connective ? 337. Give examples. Of how many kinds are 
they ? 338. What is a simple connective ? 339. What is taught by *C!,of 
the vv'ord that ? by b? hy c? What is said in d? Give the examples, to 
illustrate, in c?, e. What is an adname connective ? 340. What is taught by 
*a? byb? cl d? e? illustrated by the diagram in/. What is a 
modifying connective ? 341. What is taught of the word where^ by *a ? — 
What is said of when ? *a. 

What is taught by b 7 illustrated by diagram c. How is this explained 
by d 7 What is said in e 7 What is taught by g, of the example in the di- 
agram /? Give the examples in diagrams A and i. What is taught by 
j 1 k7 17 What is the difference between and, as used in I, and as well 

\JVote continued from last page."] 

II. Let the learner remember that the word well, as twice used in III, is 
a principal modifier — not having any connective influence. 

III. Let him remember that well, as twice used in IV, is a principal 
modifier, and as, (once used,) an auxiliar modifier, qualifying the principal 
well, and through that the meaning of the last of the two sentences — the 
word as, thus used, comparing the fact last mentioned, with the one men- 
tioned before it, to which it refers. 

IV. Let him remember that in V, the modifying connective word oa, 
(the last one,) united in combination with as well, before it, completes the 
connection of the two sentences with the qualification and comparison of 
the two facts or events expressed. The three words, as well as, constitute 
a modifying connective phrase — a modifying connective : yet in parsing the 
individual words of this phrase, we should callthefirst as, an auxiliar modi- 
fier, qualifying the word well, which is a principal modifier ; and the last 
as, a modifying connective : for, though the last as, considered as detached, 
and individualized, loses much of its associate force, it nevertheless retains 
both its connective and comparing or modifying influence in so great a de- 
gree as to entitle it to the name. 

q The phrases as far as, as fast as, and the like, and as high as, as 
near as, (when qualifying facts, not objects,) are to be parsed in the same 
manner. 



*The two words thus used, are to be parsed as one part of speech, from 
their association, and their mutual relation and dependence. They may be 
called corresponding connectives, or modifying connectives corresponding- 
\y used. 

18 



206 ETYMOLOGY. {Connectives.) 

as, used in II ? — between as well as, used in II, and the same words as u- 
sedinlll? [For the answer to these two questions, read wi.] What is 
taught by n? o? p ? [be very careful here :] by g? What words are giv- 
en in the table of simple connectives ? 342"of modifying connectives ? 343. 
What is said of that ? f p 203. What is taught by 344 ? by | ? Give the 
examples in 345. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



LESSON XL. 
James and John met each other where I had left William. Seth died in 
the morning of the day that Henry returned from the East Indies ; but he 
lived till his father arrived. Julius will start for Philadelphia when Joseph 
shall have returned from the west. Abigail and Maria will accompany Ju- 
lius to New- York ; yet they will not go with him to Trenton. Henry is as 
studious now as Helen was last winter. Albert learns as fast in summer as 
Horace did in winter. Samuel walked faBther than Jacob rode. 

And is a simple connective, joining the two names James and 
John, which sustain the same (the subjective) relation to the as- 
serter met. They have the same relation that they would have 
if they stood thus in the sentence : 
James ^ 

I > met each other. 
John 5 

Where is a modifying connective, joining the two sentences 
and conveying the idea of the place of the two events considered 
with respect to each other. It derives its modifying or qualifying 
influence from its reference to the last of the two sentences, and 
exerts the influence on the first. 

That is a modifying connective, joining the two sentences, and 
showing the time of one event to have been that of the other — 
the time of the two events relatively considered. The word that 
refers to the name day to derive thence its idea of time ; the 
word day being limited in its particular meaning by its reference 
to the last sentence, and the word that exerting, on the first sen- 
tence, the modifying influence drawn through the name day, from 
the last sentence to which it refers. 

But is a simple connective, uniting in one compound sentence, 
what would otherwise stand as two distinct simple sentences. It 
expresses no additional, distinct idea ; though it prepares the mind 
to expect a change in the circumstances of the narration. 

When is ^.modifying connective, uniting the two sentences, and. 



{Connectives,) etymology. 207 

at the same time, used to express the idea of the time of the two 
events, considered in relation to each other. It derives its modi- 
fying influence from the limitation expressed by the last sentence, 
and exerts its influence on the first. 

And is a simple connective, merely connecting the two names 
Abigail and Maria, which sustain the same (the subjective) re- 
lation to the asserter loill accompany. Thus, 

Abigail ^ 

I > will accompany, &c. 
Maria 3 

Yet is a simple connective, connecting the two simple senten- 
ces, and preparing the mind to expect a change in the circumstan- 
ces of the narrative. 

As STUDIOUS AS is an adname connective, uniting two senten- 
ces, yet qualifying, (like an adname,) the subject of the first of 
the two remarks, attaching to that subject the idea of the same 
degree of the quality expressed, that it derives from its reference 
to the subject of the last remark, as described — yet, 

As, (parsed separately,) is an auxiliar adname, qualifying the 
sense expressed by the principal, studious, and with that, belong- 
ing to, and depending on the name Hertrij. 

Studious is a principal adname, used to qualify or characterize 
the man denoted by the name Henry, to which it belongs, and on 
which it depends. 

As, (the last one, parsed separately,) is ii modifying connective, 
being sufficient, of itself, to connect the two sentences ; and, at 
the same time, expressing the idea of a comparison of the two sub- 
jects, as described, in reference to what the adname studious rep- 
resents. 

As fast as is a modifying connective, uniting the two senten- 
ces, and, at the same time, modifying the meaning of the firstsen- 
tence by attaching, to the event mentioned by it, the idea of the 
same degree of proficiency that it derives from its reference to 
the last event, as the standard by which to judge of the first men- 
tioned event — yet. 

As, (parsed separately,) is an auxiliar modifier, qualifying the 
sense expressed by the principal, fast, and belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the principal. 

Fast is a principal modifier, qualifying the fact of Albert's learn- 
ing. It attaches, to the fact of his learning, the idefa of the de- 
gree of proficiency which it takes from its reference to the fact 



208 ETYMOLOGY. (Connectivcs.) 

mentioned by the last sentence, the fact of Horace' learning at the 
time referred to. 

As, (the second one,) is a modifying connective, uniting the 
two sentences, (like a mere connective,) and, like a modifier, it 
expresses a comparison of the two events expressed by the two 
simple sentences which it connects. 

Faster than, (parsed together,) is a modifying connective, 
uniting the two sentences, and, at the same time qualifying the 
first fact or event mentioned. It attaches to the first event, the 
quality, (rapidity,) indicated by the word fast, (faster,) — this 
idea of the rapidity being graded by the reference of the word 
faster to the last event mentioned. [The last mentioned event 
is the standard of comparison by which we judge of the first men- 
tioned ; the phrase faster than, as used, indicating that whatever 
may have been the degree of rapidity with which Jacob rode, it 
was exceeded by the rapidity of Samuel's walking — yet, 

Faster, (parsed alone,) is a modifier, qualifying the first men- 
tioned event, applying to it the degree of qualifying influence 
drawn from reference to the last mentioned — and. 

Than, (parsed alone.] is a modifying connective, uniting the 
two sentences, and, at the same time instituting a comparison be- 
tween the events, and denoting disproportion or inequality in re- 
lation to them. 

LESSON XLI. 

"When* we reflect that every man is surrounded with enough to render 
him happy, and see how many are not even comfortable in their minds ; 
we are led to think that the chief sources of unhappiness are in ourselves. 
While we are young, we are looking forward to the maturer joys and blush- 
ing honors of manhood ; but we are apt to forget that these will not be ours, 
unless we shall, in youth, adopt, by virtuous and persevering industry, the 
only means which can, in after time, produce what we now desire. 

LESSON XLIL 
We plant, with care, the fruit-tree in the richest soil, and cultivate it 
long, with unceasing attention and diligence ; knowing that we can not 
plant it and eat of its fruit in the same day. After years of care bestow- 
ed upon it, we have a rich, regular, and increasing return for all our toils ; 
and by due attention to the preservation of the tree we are secured from 
want of fruit. 

LESSON XLIIL 
We should, in youth, plant, in the rich, exhaustless soil of intelligence 

*W^ien, the first word in this lesson, is a modifying connective ; connec- 
ting the first sentence, (extending to the word minds, inclusive,; with the 
Jast sentence ; just as much as though it stood between the two sentences. 
[See letter /r p 203] 



I'Mfenogaiive^.) etymology. 20i9 

and virtue, the seeds of future usefulness, respectability, and enjoyment ; 
that, when theseed time of life shall have passed, we can, still vigorousand 
useful, enjoy the fruit secured to us by youthful integrity, study, and atten- 
tion to business ; and solace ourselves in old age, with the pleasing con- 
sciousness of having tried to act our parts, and of having deserved the good 
will and respect of all within the reach of our influence — a consolatiou 
which no great or good man can despise . 



INTERROGATIVES— Adverbs. 

346 An interrogative is a part of speech used, not to de- 
note an object, but only to interrogate concerning something 
before expressed ; as, 

"We should hate vice yet pity and seek to relieve its victims. Vf^hy ? — 
James will go home to assist his father. When ? 

347 TABLE OF THE INTERROGATIVES. 

When Where Why How* 



Questions on Interrogatives, 

What is an interrogative ? 346. What words are given in the list of in- 
terrogatives. 347. What is said of these words ? See note * 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

LESSON XLIV. 

Henry : I came from Albany this morning. H020 ? Horace : bring me 
your book. Why? Sir.f Julia : I saw your brother yesterday. Where? 
Sir. 

How is an interrogative, used separate from the sentence be- 

*Each of these words may he used as other parts of speech. Their pla- 
ces in sentences, or their meaning, and their relation to sentences, must de- 
termine their character ; and they must be parsed accordingly. 

fThe word Sir, diS here used, is a nanie; general, masculine, of the sec- 
ond person, in the singular form, and t-he independent case. The word 
Madam, [or Ma'm,'] thus used, is parsed in the same manner, except that 
it is a fenmine name. 

18* 



210 ETYMOLOGY. {Replievd.) 

fore it only to interrogate concerning the means employed, or the 
manner in which the fact occurred. 

Where is an interrogative, used separate from the sentence be- 
fore it to which it refers, only to interiogate concerning what is 
expressed by the foregoing sentiment. 



REPLIERS— Adverbs. 

348 A replier is a word or phrase used, not to denote an 
object, but only to reply to a foregoing question or re- 
mark ; as. 

Should we improve our time ? Yes. Can man escape from the presence 
of his Maker ? JVb. 

349 Repliers are of three kinds : Affirmative, Negative, and 
Doubtful. 

AFFIRMATIVE REPLIERS. 

350 An affirmative replier is one which gives an affirmative 
answer ; as, 

John : will you help me ? Yes. Do you know where James can be 
found 1 Certainly. 

NEGATIVE REPLIERS. 

351 A negative replier is one which gives a negative answer ; 
as, 

John : will you injure William ? JVb. Will Henry stoop to deception ? 
JVever. 

DOUBTFUL REPLIERS. 

352 A doubtful replier is one which gives an answer implying 
doubt or uncertainty ; as, 

Julia : can you learn your lesson in time to recite with Hannah ? Possi- 
bly. Seth ? can you arrive at Albany as early as George will ? Scarcely.* 



Questions on Repliers, 

What is a replier ? 348. Of how many kinds are they ? 349. What is 
an affirmative replier ? 350— a negative replier ? 351— a doubtful replier ? 
352. 

*As various words and phrases are used as repliers, no list or table of re- 
pliers is given. The greater part of those used as repliers are found as ex- 
amples above, or are given in Lessons XLV, XL VI. 



{Exclamations.) etymology. 211 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

LESSON XLV. 

George : will you attend church this forenoon ? Yes. Henry : do you 
feel well enough to go with us ? No. Hannah : have you learned your 
lesson? Perfectly. Helen : will your father visit the school to-day ? Per- 
haps not. William : you are quite too benevolent. No — I have the means 
to relieve distress and 1 ought to do it. 

Yes is a replier, a word used, not to denote an object but only 
to reply to the foregoing question ; affirmative, giving an affirma- 
tive answer. It stands distinct from the foregoing sentence to 
which it alludes. 

No is a replier^ a word used, not to denote an object, but to re- 
ply to the foregoing question ; negative, giving a negative an- 
swer. It stands distinct from the sentence to which it refers. 

Perfectly is a word of the modifier class, used here as a re- 
plier ; affirmative, giving a strong affirmative answer. It stands 
distinct from the sentence to which it refers. 

Perhaps not is a phrase of two words of the modifier class, 
used here as a replier ; doubtful, giving an answer implying doubt 
or uncertainty in reference to what is before expressed. It stands 
distinct from the sentence to which it alludes. 

No, as last used in the foregoing lesson, is a replier, a word 
used, not to denote an object, but to reply to the foregoing remark, 
(not question,) negative, it gives a negative reply to the remark 
to which it refers, and from which it stands distinct or separate. 

LESSON XLVL 
Samuel : will your cousin return to-day ? Probably. Harriet : will you 
leave your sick father and go west ? By no means. James : tell me, will 
you interfere with the contract I am making for Mr. Wilson's farm ? Cer- 
tainly not. Julius : if I go to Troy to-morrow, will you accompany me ? 
Certainly. Ought I to take my cloak and umbrella with me ? By all 



EXCLAMATIONS— Interjections. 

353 An exclamation is a word or phrase used merely to 
express emotion ; as, 

Oh Virtue I how lovely thou art ! Alas/ I can fear nothing worse than 
I feel. 



212 etvmoloGy. {Exclamations,) 

354 EXAMPLES OF EXCLAMATIONS. 

Ah! Faugh! (fob) Halloe ! Sure! 

Alas ! Heigh ! Indeed ! Soho ! 

All hail ! Heigh-ho ! La ! (law) Pshaw ! 

Fie! Ho! Strange! Why !*a 

*a This word, though spelled to-A-y, is pronounced wy, when used j^san 
exclamation. 

b Words employed as exclamations, have more or less force according to 
the strength of emotion to be expressed by them. When the words are u= 
sed as exclamations, but in their mildest sense, to express weak emotions, 
the pupil is often led to doubt their character, and to which class of words 
they belong : especially when the emotions are so weak as not to require 
the sign of exclamation (!) after them— yet, 

c Let the learner remember, that the part of speech is determined by the 
meaning and relation of the word ; not by the degree of meaning, or the 
force expressed by the word : as, bluish cloth, blue cloth, bluer cloth, the 
bluest cloth. Here all four of the words in Italic are ad names ; though 
each of them expresses a state, or degree of the quality different from that 
expressed by the others. They alike refer to, and depend on their respective 
names. 

d Exemplification—^' After all my preparation for the voyage, if lam to 
be thus prevented — why, I shall dismiss my vexation, and return, conten- 
ted, to my shop." Here the word why is used in its mildest sense, yet as 
an exclamation, though with a comma after it, instead of the sign of excla- 
mation. 

e gc|=>The learner can determine whether or not a word is an exclama- 
tion in this manner: If the word expresses only emotion, but does not af- 
fect or change the meaning of the sentence to which it refers, it must be 
aa exclamation ; as, the word why, above ; and, " So, you have determin- 
ed to go alone," *' You have determined to go alone." [The meaning of 
the sentence is the same without the so, as with it : though with so, the 
sentence is exclamatory in character, and without so, simply descriptive.] 
♦' Really, you have come. Eh !" *' You have come. Eh !" — yet, 

/ The words Alas, Ah, and Oh, expressing regret ; and followed by 
that, and the words O, and Oh, expressing desire, and followed by for, or 
that, are exclamations, even though the sense would be affected by omit- 
ting them. 

Alas ! ^ 

Ah ! > that I was betrayed by a false friend. 

Oh! ^ 

** ! for a lodge in some vast wilderness." " ! that I had the wings 
of a dove." 

355 Combinations of words are sometimes used as exclamatory 
phrases or exclamations ; as, 
Delightful hope / Encouraging thought! Ah me !\ 

fThe words of such phrases are to be parsed separately, whenever they 
can be considered individually without destroying the sense— thus, in the 



(Derivations.) etymology. 213 

Questions on Exclamations, 

What is an exclamation ? 353. What words are given in the examples ? 
354. What is taught by *a ? by 6 ? c ? d7 el fl [remember e and / very 
carefully.] What is taught by 355 ? by \ 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

LESSON XLVn. 

Why ! George: how could you do that .' What! shall an African 1 shall 
Juba's heir reproach great Cato's son ? Oh ! I was not prepared for this 
event. Strange ! that man should oppress his brother, and thereby mock 
his God. Lo ! Earth receives Him from the bending skies.* 

Why is an exclamation^ a word used merely to express emo- 
tion. It stands before, yet distinct from, the sentence describing 
the event to which it refers. 

What is an exclamation, used only to express the emotion of 
astonishment at the fact contemplated, to which it alludes ; and 
stands distinct from the sentence to which it refers. 

{|t^[The other exclamations in the lesson are parsed in the same 
general manner, varied only to accord with the meaning and facts 
referred to.] 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

356 I. Names are derived from names, in various ways, and 
for various purposes : 

1. By adding ian, to denote professions ; as. 
From tactics, comes tacticia?z; from music, rnusician. 

2. By adding ?/, ry, or ery, to denote a general state or condi- 

first example, the phrase, •' Delightful hope .'" is parsed as an exclamato- 
ry phrase — an exclamation ; yet delightful, considered in its meaning and 
relation, is a qualifying adname, belonging to, and depending on, the name 
hope, which, as a name, is in the independent case. [The learner may give 
the other traits of the word] 

*The word Lo is sometimes elegantly used as a transitive asserter ; as, 
*^Lo ^ 

See \ the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind, 
Behold ) 
Sees God in clouds, and hears him in the wind." 



214 ETYMOLOGY. {Derivations.) 

tion, business, art, or occupation ; or to mark the classes of cer- 
tain objects ; as, 

From slave, comes slavery ,• from scenCy scenery ; from cook, cookery ; 
from soldier, soldiery. 

3. By an additional syllable ; to denote donriinion or jurisdiction, 
office, or period of life ; as. 

From bishop, bishopncA: ; from senate, senator; from child, chMhood. 

4. By adding ist^ to denote an adherent to certain principles ; 
or one skilled in sonnething ; as. 

From method, is methodise ,• from colonization, colonizationzs^ ; from 
mechanic, and mechanism, mechanw^ 

5. By adding different syllables, to denote a diminutive class of 
the things represented by the simple word ; as, 

From kid, is kid/mg; from lamb, lambA:m. 

6. By adding some syllable to denote office, or relation to the 
object represented by the simple word ; as, 

From heir, is he'vcship ; from friend, friendship ; from consul, consul- 
ship ; from president, presidency. 

II. Names are derived from asserters : 

1. By adding r, er, or or, to denote an agent, or one engaged 
in the business represented by the simple word ; as. 

From write, comes writer; from read, reader; from mediate, mediator. 

2. Names and asserters have sometimes the same form ; as. 

Love, hate, salt, heat, spring, view, which are in the same form, wheth- 
er used as names or asserters. 

3. By changing the termination of the adname, or by an addi- 
tional syllable ; as, 

From fragrant, comes fragrancy ; from ejffulgent, effulgence; from bril. 
liant, brilliancy ; from good, goodness ; from wise, wisdom. 

III. Asserters are derived from names ; as, 

1. From system, comes to systemi^^e; from method, to methodue. 

2. From adnames ; as. 

From joar^icwZar, to particularise; ivom white, to whiten; from dark, 
to darke?i ; from glad, to gladrfe/i; from short, to shorten; from bright, to 
brighten; from rfee/?, to deepen. 

3. From the modifier , forward, comes the asserter, /o/ort«arc?. 

4. Asserters sometimes have their meaning changed by prefix- 
es ; as, 

Own, disown ; bid, forbid ; run, outmn ; hold, w^jhold ; draw, with- 
draw ; look, overlook. 



(Accommodatives.) etymology. 215 

IV. Adnames are derived from names : 

1. By adding en^ to show the quality of a thing, or that of 
which it is made ; as, 

Wood, wooden; silk, silken. 

2. Names are sometimes used as adnames, without any change 
of the word ; as, 

A silver cup, an iron bar. 

3. Adnames are derived from nam^es and other adnames, by the 
addition of the syllable y, or ly ; as, 

From man, xmnly ; from health, healthy; ivom. frost, frosty. 
[Adnames are formed in various other ways.] 

V. Modifiers are derived from adnames ; as, 

From grateful, comes gratefully; from personal, personalZy; fromj^cw- 
sive, pensive/y. 

1. Modifiers are variously formed ; as. 

Back-ward, for-ward, up-ward, down-ward, thither-ward, there-by, 
there-in, here-in, there-upon. 



357ACCOMMODATIVES.* 

All is a principal adname ; as. All men must die : 

a an auxiliar adname : as. The fact was ) -x [ apparent: 

an adname substitute ; as. Not a building was left. All were 
swept away : 

C all ^ 
a modifier ; as. The house was < wholly > consumed : 

f entirely ) 
a name ; as, " He was my guide, my light, my a//." 

Am is a principal asserter ; as, I am not well : 
T an auxiliar asserter ; as, I am writing — [writing being the 
principal.] 

Both is an adname ; as. Both books were taken : 

*Accommodatives are not a separate class of words : they are merely 
words which custom allows to be used, [without change of form,] in cir- 
cumstances so various, that each of them assumes different relations ; and, 
in parsing, should be distinguished as different parts of speech, according 
to the places or connections in which the word is found . 



216 ETYMOLOGY. {Accommodatives.) 

an adname substitute ; as, I could not find either book : both 
had been carried away. 

C seen ^ ^ me 
a modifier ; as, " They have both \ I / both<. | 

( hated ) (my father:* 

But is a connective ; as, James went home, but he did not return : 
d C but '1 

a modifier ; as, Man without decision, is < merely > a leaf 

on the wave : ^ only j 

a relative ; as. All of the school ) went home.| 

S 

James, 
Do is a principal asserter ; as, / do the work well : 

an auxiliar asserter ; used affirmatively for the sake of empha- 
sis ; as, I do love ; and used interrogatively for the pur- 
pose of softening or smoothing the expression ; as. Do I 
LOVE ; instead of Love I ? 

Each is an adname ; as. Each man should provide honestly for 
JT his own wants : 

•^ an adname substitute ; as, Each sought to comfort the other: 
a modifier ; as, James sold his apples for a penny each. 

Either is an adname ; as. Either man can do the work : 

an adname substitute ; as. If either should be attacked, the 
^ other was to help him : 

a connective, (joined with or ;) as, I will either go, or send 
my son. J 

For is a relative ; as, I went to the store /or some flour. I paid 
, three dollars for my bible. 

a connective ; as. He surrendered, ) i^ [it was vain to 

resist. 

Have is a principal asserter ; as, I have books for sale : 

an auxiliar asserter ; as, I hai^e seen James — I have been sick. 

*In these examples, the word both is used only for uniting more closely 
and strongly, the sense expressed by other words. It adds nothing distinct 
and definite to the sense ; but gives greater force to what other words ex- 
press. Both is never a connective or " conjunction." 

^But is associated with /or, as a part of a relative ; as, I should have died 
hut for John's assistance. 

X JXeither may be used in the same relations ; nor, instead of or, being 
its associate word, when it is used as a connective. 



iAccommodatives.) etymology. 217 

Home is a name ; as, John is at home. 'Her liome is on the deep :' 

an adname ; as, We should patronize home manufactures : 
^ a modifier ; as, James went home. I have been hmne. 

Ill is an adname ; as, Julia is < • / 

a modifier ; as, James did his work very ] i^ jj 

LoTE is a name ; as, Hannah's love is constant : 
. an asserter ; as, I love my parents : 

an adname ; as, James read the love story. 

Not is a modifier ; as, I did not see Henry this morning : 

a modifying connective ; as, * He sought to perplex, not to en- 
lighten ; to conquer, not to convert.' 
[Here not denies of the expression following it, what would be 
affirmed if and was used.] 

On is a relative ; as. He stood on the rock. He spoke on a dif- 
ferent subject. 

a modifier ; as. He rested awhile, and then went w * i , 

On ' } 
an asserter ; as, "Charge, Chester, charge! — . , ' S Stan- 
ley—On."' 

Off is a relative : as. The fugitives were driven off the precipice ° 
a modifier ; as, " The old chief sat listening awhile, then 

^ jr .55 

rose, and very demurely walked \ -^ * 
^ J J ^ away : 

an asserter; as, -n ^' » s wretches — villains — 0^.'" 
' ' JtJegone ! ( -^ 

Since is a relative ; as, I have not seen James since last spring : 
a modifier ; as, James went home some time ago, and I have 
^ not seen him since : 

a modifying connective ; as, ^i • *i, i. > we must suffer, 
•^ ^ ' ' feeemg that 5 

let us suffer like Christians. 

That is an adname ; as, Julia : please to hand me that pencil : 
an adname substitute ; as, Julia took this pencil and left that : 

a connective substitute ; as, James is the man < v I met : 

C whom ) 

a simple connective ; as, I told James that he must go home : 

19 



218 ETYMOLOGY. {Accommodative^.^ 

a modifying connective ; as, I returned in the morning of the 
day that James started. 

Vice is a name ; as, Vice is a monster : 

r a relative ; as, James Wilson was appointed, < . ^?^^ - \ 

D. Williams, removed.* 

What is a connective substitute ; as, I bought ten oranges, and 
Henry took what were left : 
an indefinite substitute ; as, " What parsing is — What it is 

not."t^ 
an indefinite specifying adname, connective in its influence ; 

as, I took what provisions were needed : 
a modifier ; as, I have two or three farms with which I know 
, J what to do. 
\ how to manage, 
an exclamation ; as. What ! shall an' African reproach great 

Cato's son } 
an exclamatory adname ; as. What students these are ! [See 
302 and *a, and h.'] 

Which is a specifying adname ; as, I told Henry which books to 
take : 
an interrogative adname ; as, Which book will you take } 
a connective substitute ; as, James ate the oranges which I 

bought : 
an interrogative substitute ; as. Which ought we to pre- 
C vice, with wretchedness ? 
fer, ] t 

( virtue, with felicity } 

Well is an adname ; as, Julia is < i uu * . 

a modifier ; as, Jane did the work < • i /. 

an exclamation ; as, " Well ! what is to be done now ?"Ja 

*Fice is also used as a part of a compound word; as, F"ice-president, 
Fiice-admiral, &c. 

fA caption, or head of a chapter. See 170, and note f p 89. 

Xa It is not pretended that the foregoing examples constitute a full list of 
the words used as accommodatives. A few only are given to illustrate the 
principle, in calling the learner's attention to the facts presented. 

h All the adnames in the language, except a, an, the, every, very, no, 
and said^ may be so employed as to be adname substitutes — " adjective pro- 
nouns." 



SYNTAX. 219 



SYNTAX 

358 Treats of the relation and dependence of 
words in sentences, and of selecting, arranging, 
and combining words to make sentences for ex- 
pressing facts or events. 

A SENTENCE 

359 Is an asserter, making full sense, or an assemblage 
of worcls expressing a fact or event, and having, as its com- 
ponent parts, (with or vi^ithout other words,) an asserter and 
a word or phrase in the subjective case, on which the Eisser- 
ter depends ; as, 

Listen ! Henry ; study. Jeha lives. Seth ate an apple. Julia re- 
sides in London. Is Samuel sick ? Where is George l*a 

360 Sentences are distinguished as Principal and Auxiliar ; and 
as Simple, Compound, and Complex. 

A PRINCIPAL SENTENCE 

361 Is one which makes full sense of itself — one which, of it- 
self, constitutes an independent remark ; as, 

We started for New-York. James had returned from the west. John 

*a Here it is seen that the asserter listen, (the first example,) makes full 
sense without connection with any other word — for, if twenty persons are 
standing near me, I may say, "■Listen," and the sense is complete with- 
out my naming the persons addressed. The word listen, thus used, expres- 
ses a sentiment — a perfect sentiment, and is, of itself, a perfect sentence ; 
just as much as though I should name the persons addressed, or should use 
the substitute you or ye, with the asserter listen. [The asserter in this ex- 
ample, is in the commanding mode absolute. See 188, p 103.] 

h When an asserter is so used in the commanding mode absolute as to 
make full sense, and express the whole meaning of the author, it constitutes 
of itself, or alone, a sentence ; a sentence being a word or set of words ex- 
pressing, as a sentiment, a fact or event, with or without words of limita- 
tion or qualification. 

c Such sentences should be used in oral remarks only when, from the 
presence, (real or supposed,) of those who are addressed, there is no dan- 
ger of the speaker's being misunderstood ; and m written remarks, only 
when the person or thing addressed has already been named or clearly intro- 
duced. 

d In the other examples following the asserter Listen, as first used, each 
assemblage or combination of words expresses an event or fact. 



220 SYNTAX 



was sick. He remained with him.* [A principal sentence was formerlj 
called primary. 1 

AN AUXILIAR SENTENCE 

362 Is one which expresses an entire event, [yet does not 
make an independent remark,] and is employed to qualify or ex- 
plain the fact expressed by the principal sentence, on which the 
auxiliar sentence depends ; as, 

Jafnes having returned from the west, we started for New York. John 
being sick, we remained with him. fa [An auxiliar sentence was former- 
ly called secondary.'] 

*The leading asserter in a principal sentence must be in one of the first 
four modes. 

■fa In these examples, it is seen that each of the combinations of words 
in Italic expresses an event, (something which haffpened) — that it does not 
constitute an independent remark — and that it is used to qualify the event 
expressed by the principal sentence, the combination of words immediate- 
ly following it. Thus, 

b When I say, " James had returned from the west," I employ a set of 
words which makes fall sense of itself, or constitutes an independent remark 
— a remark not dependent on other words for its complete sense ; but, when 
I say, "James having returned from the west" — if I stop here, though an 
event is expressed, the sense is incomplete — the combination of words em- 
ployed not being an independent remark, or a remark which makes full 
sense of itself. The hearer is conscious that somethiag is lacking to com- 
plete the expression — yet, 

c When I say, " We started for New York" — this combination makes 
full sense — is complete of itself — is an independent remark — and whenlsay, 
** James having returned jrom thewesty we started for New- York" — the 
sense is perfect, and it is seen that the combmation of words in Italic, ex- 
pressing an event, is used to qualify or explain the other event mentioned, 
indicating that the fact of our starting for JVew-York, was in some respect 
consequent on James* return — as though we could not well start till James 
should come. 

d U I say, " J=ohn was sick,^' the sense is complete, and the remark full 
and independent of another — [This is a principal sentence]— but when Isay^ 
' John being sick' — though a fact is expressed, the sense is incomplete, and 
the remark is not a full, perfect, and independent one — but, 

e When I say, • John being sick, we remained with him ,' the sense is now 
complete — the first combination of words, (the one in Italic,) being used to 
explain in relation to what the other expresses ; and being used in reference 
to, and dependence on, the other, which is its principal sentence. 

/ In an auxiliar sentence, the leading or most important asserter must al- 
ways be in the dependent mode, seco/i^/ division. 

g [By comparing, the student will perceive a degree of resemblance be- 
tween the association of principal and auxiliar sentences^, and that of pria-^ 
cipal and auxiliar asserters, adnames,. &c.] 



SYNTAX. 221 

A SIMPLE SENTENCE 

383 Is a principal sentence standing by itself, and expressing 
one fact or event ; as, 

William attended church. Henry remained at home. James returned 
from the store. John went to school. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE 

364 Consists of two principal sentences, united by a connec- 
tive ; or of one principal and one auxiliar, joined without the aid 
of a connective ; as, 

William attended church, hut Henry remained at home. James having 
returned from the store, John went to school. 

A COMPLEX SENTENCE 

365 Is one which is formed in uniting, by than or as, words 
that must otherwise stand as parts of distinct simple sentences: 
thus : 

Simple sentences — John is wise. Julius is wiser. Henry is kind. Wil- 
liam is equally kind. 

Complex sentences — Julius is wiser than John. William is as kind as 
Henry. *a 

A PHRASE 

366 I. Is a combination of words not amounting to a 

complete sentence, but expressing- a set of ideas, either sep- 
arate from a sentence, or in connection with one : or, 

II. It is a sentence, perfect in itself, which is joined, as 
an appendage, to another sentence which it is used to ex- 
plain ; as. 

An elegant house. John went to Utica. " Earth's highest station ends 
in ' Here he lies.'' "f a 

*a The object in using complex sentences, is to secure brevity, strength, 
and elegance, without the sacrifice of clearness. 

b The learner perceives, at once, that the expression, 'Julius is wiser 
than John,' is much stronger, and more brief and elegant, than, ' John is 
wise, and Julius is wiser.' 

fA Here the combination of words, an elegant house, expresses a set of 
ideas — the thing house, and the character of the house. To Utica express- 
es a set of ideeis in connection with those expressed by the sentence, John 
went. Each of these combinations is less than a sentence — but the combi- 
nation, ' Here he lies,' (in the grave, meaning,) makes full sense — is a per- 
fect sentence, of itself ; but it is employed as an appendage of, 'Earth's 
highest station ends.' The question may be asked, "John went, to what 
place .?" — the answer would be, « to Utica.' So the question may be ask- 
19* 



222 SYNfAio 

AN APPENDANT PHPvASE 

367 Consists of a word denoting an object, and a relative join- 
ing the word to a sentence ; the relative showing the relation be- 
tween this object and the fact described by the sentence, or anoth- 
er object mentioned in the sentence : thus, 

I. John travelled — a sentence : 

II. John travelled from New- York — From New York, an ap- 
pendant phrase : 

III. John travelled from New York vp the Hudson — Up the 
Hudson, another appendant phrase : 

IV. John travelled from New York, up the Hudson, by Alba- 
ny — By Albany, another appendant phrase : 

V. John travelled from New York, up the Hudson, by Alba- 
ny, along the Mohawk — Along the Mohawk, another appendant 
phrase : 

VI. John travelled from New-York up the Hudson by Alba- 
ny, along the Mohawk, beyond Schenectady, through Herkimer, 
to Utica, in Oneida county — four other appendant phrases. ^'a 



ed, 'Earth's highest station ends, in what ?'-the answer would be in, 'Here 
he lies.' 

B While, then, the last three words in Italic would be parsed as a substi- 
tute phrase, [172, p 92,] the word herewonld be parsed cisdt jnodifier — qual- 
ifying the fact of the person's lying — he^ as a substitute for the name of the 
one buried ; and lies, as an asserter referring to, and depending on, the sub- 
stitute he. 



*a To constitute an appendant phrase, there must he relative and a word 
denoting something which may be considered separately or alone ; as, 

James went to London. Here we have the name London denoting an 
object which may be considered or thought of separately or alone. We 
have also the relative to, showing the relation of the event oi James' going, 
to the city to which he went — the relative joining the name, (London,) to 
the sentence James went. To London is herein seen to be an appendant 
phrase — but, 

b In the example, * We toiled in vain,' the words in vain are not an ap- 
jpendant phrase, according to the definition : the v^-'ord vain does not denote 
an object, nor does the word in show the relation of the fact of our toiling, 
to any object which may be considered separately or alone, an object of 
which we can think without thinking of any thing else. 

c In every appendant phrase, there must be at least ojie relative, and one 
word in the objective case, depending on the relative. This objective word, 
if a name, a simple, or an adname substitute, may easily be found by using 
the word whom or what, interrogatively, after the relative : thus — James 
went to London in England— James went to what 7 [The answer would 



5tNTAX. 22B 

PARSING 

368 Is describing the nature, and powers of words,- 
and when united in a phrase or a sentence, their relation 
TO; and DEPENDENCE and influence on, each other.% 

be to London; the name London being the objective word sought.] James 
went to London in ivhat ? [The answer would be in England : the name 
England being the objective word sought.] George spoke of Henry — 
George spoke of whojn ? [The answer would be of Htnry ; the name Hen- 
ry being the objective ivord sought ] 

d I. Ocf^If the learner will but bear in mind that appendant phrases a- 
bound in almost all sentences — that they frequently constitute the greatest 
part of a sentence, (as in V, below,) much of the seeming difficulty in pars- 
ing will vanish. W^hat was before thought complex and difficult, will ap- 
pear plain and easy : Therefore, 

II. Od^* When the student, in parsing, comes to a sentence which has sev- 
eral appendant phrases, he will very much facilitate his labors, by separa- 
ting, mentally, these phrases from each other, remembering, that in each 
appendant phrase he will find a relative, and an objective word, defending 
on it ; as, 

III. John went from New York, up the Hudson, by Albany , along the Mo- 
hawk, beyond Schenectady, through Herkimer, to Utica,in Oneida county. 

IV. This, with the appendant phrases, distinguished as such, would stand 
thus : 

V. James went ] from New York | up the Hudson | by Albany | along 
the Mohawk | beyond Schenectady ] through Herkimer ] to Utica | m 0- 
neida county. 

VI. Here it is seen that after every perpendicular mark, is an appendant 
phrase, being, (with or without another word,) a relative, and a name in 
the objective case, depending on the relative ; the relatives, in all except the 
last example, showing the relation between the fact of the man's going, 
and the objects denoted by the names depending on the relatives respectively 
—the last relative, {in,) showing the relation between the object, the covnty, 
as a territory, and the other object, the city of Utica, mentioned in the sen- 
tence — as savs the last part of the definition of an appendant phrase. [See 
367] 

*a This definition of parsing precludes the old practice of parsing words 
that are expressed, not according to their meaning, use, and relation to each 
other, but according to their pretended relation to somethingunderstood, that 
is not, need not, should not, be expressed. [This " something under- 
stood," technically considered, is something which no one can ever under- 
stand; — something which neither author nor teacher has ever been able to 
explain, — something the pupil was never made to comprehend."] 

b <Jc|=The student should remember that the practice of 'parsing ' words 
properly arranged and expressed in the sentence, according to their relation 
to words ' understood ;' (that are 77ot, should not, be expressed,) prevents 
the possibility of parsing the words used : for, 

c Qcf=As parsing is describing facts concerning words, to neglect the real 
relations of words, as used, and to describe relations that exist only in tlie 



224 SYNTAX. 

REMARKS ON PARSING. 

369 I. Find what are the limits of the sentence given you for 
your parsing. See whether or not there are words enough in the 

imagination of a misguided Grammar-writer, is not parsing the words at 
all ; but IS leaving the facts, and parsing mere suppositions : is dropping 
the substance to chase 2. phantom : all which, instead of inspiriting the pu- 
pil by enabling him to see the relations that he is to describe, only leads 
liim into the perplexing mazes of inconsistency ; and leaves him involved 
in the labyrinth of doubt. 

d Ocl=^It has been well remarked by the old writers, that " three fourths 
of all the difficulties in grammar, consist in the learner's not being able to 
know whatvs^ords should be put in, to supply the ellipses which the idiom 
of the language allows." [This is like saying that three fourths of the evils 
incident to a virtuous life, are those which are attendant on the ^a^y^ of uice, 
that should not be trodden. These evils are not, then, the accompaniments 
of virtue — are altogether foreign to it.] To their suggestions, I reply, that 
none of the " ellipses which the idiom allows," should ever be supplied ; 
for they are not ellipses except as considered in contrast with rules, which, 
by these authors' own showing, are at variance with the principles and struc- 
ture of the language. Thus, 

e Od^I- The sentence, * John ; go home,' the old theories declare to be 
*' elliptical," and direct the learner, in parsing the sentence, ' to supply the 
deficiencies which the idiom of the language allows,' by putting in two or 
three additional words ; thus, ' John ; go thou to home' — or, ' John : do 
thou go unto home.' Here it is seen that their rules require the learner to 
Yioiate the plain idiom of the language, as well as common sense. 

f Cc|=II. The sentence ' John ; go home,' stands [CTjust as the idiom of 
the language requires. Of course, it stands ()ij=just as the grammar of 
the language should require. As, then, the sentence stands according to 
correct usage, according to the idiom of the language, if I obey these rules 
and say, 'John : do thou go unto home, I depart from correct usage and 
tiiolate the idiom of the language, by acting in obedience to the rules. 

III. O^In the remark, ' John ; go home,' there are but three ideas to be 
expressed : and there are three words to express them with — the nzme, John, 
to express the idea of the man — go, to express the idea of the action which 
the man is commanded to perform ; and home, to express the idea of the 
place. This is all that the language — all that correct usage — all that the id- 
iom of the language requires or allows. There are just as many words as 
ideas. There are, really, no ellipses — every thing pertaining to the sen- 
tence is perfect. From this, it is seen that what these theories call ellipses 
are only the disagreement between sentences, correctly formed, [as, John ; 
go home,] and sentences formed according to the teachings of their rules, 
[as, John : do thou go unto home] — in other words, it is the difference be- 
tween good usage, the idiom of the language, on one hand, and the teachings 
of their rules, on the other. The meaning of the sentence, and the idiom 
of the language require the sentence to be three words long, and their rules 
require the sentence to be six words long. Thus, 

John ; go honne — according to the idiom of the language. 
John : do thou go unto home — according to the old theories. 
g The old theorists seem to forget that it is the business of grammar to rep- 



SYNTAX. 225 

sentence for expressing fully and clearly, the ideas which the au- 
thor would convey. 

II. If the sentence is faulty in any respect, (for incorrect 
sentences are very common,) correct it. If there are not words 
enough used to express the ideas, fully and properly, supply the 
deficiency. If there are too many, throw out the superfluous 
words. Make- the sentence stand as it should be spoken or writ- 
ten. 

[To determine these things, consult the seven principles y (See 
13, p 16,) and the rules of grammar generally.] 

III. Then find the asserter, which, taken with only a word in 
the subjective case, will make sense, as far as the sense extends. 
If the asserter is transitive, see whether or not it should have a 
word in the objective case depending on it ; and if so, find that 
word ; if not, pass on. If an asserter has several words joined to 
it, divide them into appendant phrases. 

IV. Then, beginning with the first word in the sentence, parse 
the words in the order in which they stand, giving such an anal- 
ysis of the sentence as will represent the sense of the piece, and 

resent the idiom of the language ; and, not keeping this philosophical prin-> 
ciple before them, they will not undergo the drudgery of studyingand learn- 
ing the language, and then adapting their theories to it ; but they first write 
their theories, and then adapt the language to the theories — like a person'* 
first writing a geography without having become acquainted with the fea- 
tures and character of the earth, and then ' supplying the ellipses,'' (cor- 
recting the disagreement between the earth and his book,) by putting in o- 
ceans and rivers, mountains and deserts, ' understood,'' to adapt, (by this 
imaginary process,) the earth to bis system of geography. [See the preface 
of this grammar.] 

h The old theorists take a perfect sentence, as, 

I. John ; go home r 

then mentally separate the words to niakt blanks or ellipses where there are 
none, as, 

II. John ; go home : 

then fill the blanks, or supply these ellipses of their own making, (and in a 
manner which the idiom disallows,) as, 

III. John: da thou go unto home. 

then call the^r*^ sentence correct,, because the last agrees with their rules- 
— and then pretend they hzye parsed the first sentence because they have 
spoiled that, and parsed the last one. [See other examples in the preface 
of this work.] 

i OCl=If a sentence stands as it should be, and rules can not be found for 
parsing it, (as it stands,) it argues defect in the rules, not in the language ,■: 
as the very phrase, English Grammar, supposes the pre-existence of the 
language to the grammar which treats of it. 



226 



[Order of 



the meaning of the author, without forcing words, (which may be 
parsed separately,) to represent, in the sentence, what they would 
not in their individual capacity. 

V. Never put in words under the mere pretence of supplying 
the ellipses f (words omitted,) where there is no omission of words 
that should be used. 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

370 I. Distinguish the parts of speech, as such ; and in giving 
the minor distinctions and definitions, follow the order in which 
they are given in this treatise, and exhibited in the diagrams 1,2, 
3, &c. that follow. 

II. Continue to give the definitions of the parts of speech, and 
their subdivisions, till you shall have become ready and prompt in 
distinguishing and defining : but, having done this, you should not 
waste your time in repeating continually the reasons which you 
fully understand, but should name the various distinctions of words : 
explain their relation to, and dependence on, each other, and give 
the rules which describe those relations and dependences. 

III. In parsing, when you come to a name, distinguish it as a 
name ; then tell whether it is general or particular^ &c. men- 
tioning the distinctions in the order given in the following diagram : 

DIAGRAM I.— NAMES. 

Subj? 129-Rule; 

o. „ . ,^ , Q~ Poss ? 130-Rule. 

Sec. per? 94 l"^-^™^^ Obj? 131-Rule. 
Third per? 95 P^^''-^^'"^' ^^ Ind? 132-Rule. 

2fold?133-Rules4 

Subj ? 129-Rule. 
Poss? 130-Rule. 
Obj? 131-Rule. 
Ind? 132-Rule. 
2fold?132-Rule3.t 

Subj? 129-Rule. 
Poss? 130-Rule. 
Obj? 131-Rule. 
Ind? 132-Rule. 
2fold?133-Rule9.| 

1 Sub]? 129-Rule. 

CI- c jn» Poss? 130-Rule. 
S.ng.form 97 0^., ^^i_^^^^ 

Plur. form?98 ,„i, ,oo tj..i„ 



Genrl? 78 



Partic? 79 



r 

j 
Collect?80 I 



Masc? 83 
Fem? 84 
Com? 85 
Neut? 86 



Masc? 


83 


Fem? 


84 


Com? 


85 


Neut? 


86 



Sec. per ? 94 
Third per? 95 



Neu?*86 



Sec. per ? 94 
Third per? 95 



Sing, form? 97 
Plur.form?98 



Sing, form ? 97 
Plur.form?98 



Assert? 81 



Neu?*86 



Third per?t95 " '"" '"'"" ""I Ind? 132-Rule. 
'2fold?133-Rules.t 

•Always neuter. fAlways of the third person. 

JSee note H, under Diagram II-'[Substitute.] 



Parsing-I syntax. 227 

IV. In parsing, when you come to a substitute, distinguish it 
as a substitute, then tell whether it is si?)iple or connective, &c. 
giving the distinctions m the order given in the following dia- 
gram: 

DIAGRAM II.—SUBSTITUTES. 

rMasc?83 



Neut? 86 



First per? 93 
Sec. per? 94 
Third per? 95 



Sing. form?97 
Plu. form?98 



Con? 156 



Int? 160 



Adn? 164 



Neg? 169 



Ind? 170 



•4 



Sec. per? 94 
Third per? 95 



.§ 



Subj?129-Rule. 
Poss?130-Rule. 
Obj? 131-Rule. 
Ind? 132.Rule. 
2fold?133-Ruies.ir 

Subj? 129-Rule. 
Poss? 130-Rule. 
Obj. 131-Rule. 
Ind? 132.Rule. 
2fold ?133-Rules.^ 

Subj .'129-Rule. 
Poss? 130-Rule. 
Obj? 131-Rule. 
Ind? 132-Rule. 
2fold?133-Rules.1T 

Subj. 129-Rule. 
Poss. 130.Rule. 
Obj. 131-Rule. 
Ind? 132-Rule. 
2fold?133-Rules.ir 

Subj?129.Rule. 



Obj? ISl-Rule. 
Ind? 132-Rule. 
2fold?133-Rules.ir 

Subj? 129-Rule. 
Poss? 130-Rule. 
Obj? 131-Rule. 
Ind? 132-Rule. 
2fold?133-Rules.ir 



*As these substitutes are always common, not having any modification to 
distinguish objects in regard to sex, the pupil in parsing them needs not con- 
tinue to mention this trait ; but may proceed to the other distinctions of the 
substitutes. 

fAs most of the adname substitutes are common, the pupil in parsing an 
adname substitute, needs not continue to mention this trait : he may just 
mention the distinction when the word really gives it, [see notefA, b, c,p 
88,] and may proceed to the other distinctions of the substitutes. 

JAs these substitutes can not, of themselves, mark any distinction of per- 
son, the pupil in parsing them, may merely tell whether they are substituted 

[For notes § |1 \\a *^ see next page.} 



228 SVNTAX. [Order of 

y. In parsing an asserter, distinguish it as such ; if it is a sub- 
stitute asserter, mention it as such ; if not, and there are auxil- 
iars, tell which is the principal, which are the auxiliars, and wheth- 
er the asserter is intransitive, transitive, &c. and then, whatever 
kind the asserter, give the other traits in the order following : 

DIAGRAM III.— ASSERTERS. 

Pr. past? 193| I a 

Ind.past?194 
Declar? ISS Pri.pres?195 
Int'rog. 186t Present.' J96 j,^,, ,„^ ^^^ ,.,^, ^^^^^ 

Ind. fut! 1981 







f 1— t 

D 
















' ^ 






3 


l_j 






<f 




•xi 


00 






H 




H^ 


3 




Ol 


D 


^^ 


> 


>-t 


« 


c 


cS 




X 




E- 










o 




HJ 


(t> 




<f 


T3 




C5 


•-yS 




* 


f;; 




I o (^ 




Subs. As- 




"• sert 


?177 



Reg? 202 
Irreg?203 
Def ? 204 



Sing, form? 2051 5"j^* 

Plur. form? 206! ^T* 
i Rule. 

I Rule. 



Inferen? 184 
Int'rog?185t 



Pr. past? 193 
Indefin? 199 
Pri.pres?195 
Present? 196 



Com? 186 Present? 196 



Reg? 202 
Irreg?203 
Def? 204 

Reg? 202 
Irreg?203 
Def ? 204 



SiDg.form?205|^"^- 

Plur.form?206|ST* 
Com.form?207f gUJ^- 

|-Rule. 

SRule. 

Com f'm? 207111 Rule. 



1^ Depen? 187| 



\ Modes§ 



Indef? 199 
Pr. past? 193 

Tenses§ 



Reg?202| fRule. 

Irreg?203 ^ Rule. 

Def? 204 1 Com. form? IT 1. Rule. 

Sing, form? 205| Rule. 
Plur. form? 206 1 Rule. 
Com.form?207|Rule. 



\J\rotes § II Ha H continued from last page. "] 
for words which are of the first, the second, or the third person, and pro- 
ceed to the other distinctions of the substitutes. 

§As these substittites are always of the third person, the pupil, in pars- 
ing them, may bear this trait in mind, without mentioning it, and may pro- 
ceed to give the other distinctions of the substitutes. 

II As these substitutes can not, of themselves, mark the distinctions with 
respect to number, (they being always in the same form whether meaning 
one, or more than one,) the pupil in parsing them may merely mention 
whether they are used in the singular or the plural sense, and then proceed 
to the distinction of case. 

||a These substitutes seldom have the two forms, singular 2inA plural. — 
In parsing, as adname substitutes, words which have respectively, the sin- 
gular and the plural form, the pupil should mention these distinctions ; but 
in parsing an adname substitute which has but one form, he should tell 
whether it is used in the singular or plural sense; and then proceed to dis- 
tinguish its case. 

IT I. In parsing a word in the tv:oJold case, the pupil should not expect 
to apply one rule for both cases, unitedly considered. 

II. If the word is in the twofold case including the possessive, with the 



[For notes * f J § || H ?(? above Diagram, see nextpage-l 



Parsing."] syntax. 229 

VI. In parsing an adname, distinguish it as such, and mention 
the other traits in the order given in the following 



DIAGRAM IV.— ADNAMES. 

Simp? 258] 

Comp? 259 Principal? 279 & Rule. 

Super? 260 Auxiliar?2806 ° Rule. 

Dim?26la| r 



Qual? 256 



Adname,254 



Speci? 28S 



Numer?290 
Ordin? 291 
Distrib?292 
Defin? 294 
Indef? 296 



Principal? 279 3 Rule. 
Auxiliar?2806 | Rule. 



Inter? 3011..., 

Excl? .3021..., 

Nega.? 3031... 

Assert? 304|**" 



Modi? sosr" 



I ,.. iRule. 

I c fRuIe. 

I • f Rule. 

I Principal? 279 I ^, 
|Auxiliar?2806|-^"*®° 

IPrincipal?279 - ^ 
|Auxiliar?280& ^"l^' 



sMSjective or the o&jective, he should mention the relation which the word 
sustains from its swijective or its objective case, and apply the rule for that 
one case. [See exercises in parsing, immediately after the Rules.] 

III. In parsing a word in the two-fold case, not including the possessive, 
the pupil should mention the two-fold case ; then tell its first relation or case, 
and give the same rule as though that was the only case, and then mention 
which other case it represents, and give the rule for that as though that vfzs 
the only case. [See exercises in parsing, immediately after the Rules.] 



[JSTotes to Diagram III, Asserters, last page."] 

*When the learner has become able to mark these two distinctions, he may 
omit them. 

fThe Interrogative mode has the same number of tenses as the Beclara- 
tive or the Inferential, from which it is formed. 

|It may be well for a time to have the pupil distinguish the first and the 
second division of the dependent raode. 

§The substitute asserter has the same mode and tense as though it was 
any other asserter ; but it does not admit the distinctions Trans. Intrans. &c. 

IIBesides these forms, there is the one pertaining to thou^ which may be 
mentioned as such when it occurs in the parsing lesson. 

HAsserters in these modes having but one, the common form, the pupil, 
keeping this trait in mind, may ornit to mention it in parsing. 

" \JVotes to Diagram IV, Adnames, above.] 
a If the declension of the &dname is by prefixing an auxiliar to the prin- 
cipal, instead of changing the form of the principal, to va/ry the sense^ the 
20 



230 



SYNTAX. 



[Order of 



VII. In parsing, when you come to a modifier , distinguish it as 
such, and then proceed with it in the order given in the following 

DIAGRAM v.— MODIFIERS. 

of manner? a p 182 
of time? 6p 182* 



of place? g p 182 
of tendency? h 182 
of number? i p 182 
of order? j' p 182 
■I of means, } 

3. S /£ p 182 

cause, t ) 

of degree? Zp 183 

of doubt? mp 183 

I of affirm 4? np 183 

lofnega.ll? wpl83 



Simp, form? '309i 
Com. form? 810 Principal ? 31 7§ 
'Sup. form? 311 Auxiliar ? 318§ 
Dim. form? 312 



I'l Rule. 
El Rule. 



VIII. 1. In parsing a relative^ distinguish it as such, and, if it is 
an ordinary relative, without an auxiliar, merely tell betw^een what 
it shows relation — whether an event or object or between two ob- 



pupil should mention the fact, by saying of the principal, *' it is simple in 
form, but made comparative, or otherwise, in sense, by the union of the aux- 
iliar with the principal ;" as, happy, simple/orwi and sense: more happy — 
happy, in the simple form, expressing the comparative sense by the aid of 
the auxiliar more : most happy — happy, in the simple /<?r7n,^expressing the 
superlative sense by the aid of more: somevjhat happy — happy, still, as a 
simple word, in the simple form, but expressing the diminutive sense by the 
aid of the auxiliar somewhat. 

If the odname is defective or indeclinable, zs, silver, gold, square, S^'C. 
(see 266,) it would be well for the pupil to mention the fact. 

h The distinctions principal and auxiliar need not be mentioned, except 
where both occur in connection. Where there are several auxiliars quali- 
fying one principal, the pupil should tell whether a word is first, second, or 
third auxiliar. 

c The principal exclamatory adname never has an awa-t'/iar qualifying it : 
the auxiliar exclamatory adname being always used to qualify or aid an 
adname of another kind. 



*It would be well for the pupil, in the earlier stages of his parsing modi- 
fiers, to mark the distinctions of time, as past, present, &c. as given in let- 
ters c, d, e,f, p 182. 

fThese are considered in connection, from the fact that the same words 
are sometimes used to refer to means employed, and sometimes to refer to 
a cause producing a certain effect mentioned. 

f" Affirm." — a contraction or an abbreviation of affirmation. 

|1'< JVeg-a."— an abbreviation o( J\''egation. 

§These distinctions need not be given except when both occur in connec- 
tion. 



Parsing.} syntax. 231 

jects. The rule is not to be given except when you parse the word 
depending on the relative. 

2. If the relative has auxiliars, distinguish them as such, then 
tell what they qualify, and give the rule concerning auxiliar rela- 
tives. 

3.. If the relative is adname, nnodifying, or independent, you 
may mention this distinctive trait, and tell what relation it shows, 
&c. not giving any rule except as mentioned above. 

DIAGRAM VI.— RELATIVES. 



' (Auxiliar ? 325 



Adname? 332 
Modifying: 333 
Independent? 334 



IX. In parsing a connective, distinguish it as such, tell wheth- 
er it is simple, modifying, &c. as in the following diagram ; tell 
what it connects, but give no rule except when parsing the words 
connected — and none at all if the connective joins or unites sen- 
tences. 

DIAGRAM VII.— CONNECTIVES. 

Simple ? 339| 



Connective, 337 



Adname ? 340, . 

■« «- 1 . o - «... give no Kule. 

Modifying? 341' 



Tell what it connects, but 



X. In parsing an interrogative ^ distinguish it as such, tell con- 
cerning what fact it asks the question, to what it refers, and give 
the rule ; as mentioned in the following 

DIAGRAM VIIL— INTERROGATIVES. 
Interrogative, 346 <{ Teii to what u refers, and give your }>Rale. 

XI. In parsing a replier, distinguish it as such, tell its kind, to 
what it refers, (whether a question or a remark j) and give the 
lule as mentioned in the following 

DIAGRAM IX.— REPLIERS. 

Affirmative ? 350 



Replier, 348? Negative ? " 351 \ ■---"- -constitutes an j ^^^^ 



wha^ it constitutes an 
answer, and give your 



Doubtful ? 352 

XII. In parsing an exc/araa/ioTz, distinguish it as such, tell what 
emotion it expresses, (whether of grief or joy, &c.) tell to what 
it alludes, and give (he rule ; as mentioned in the following 

DIAGRAM X.— EXCLAMATIONS. 

^XCI- AMATION, 353 ■{ Tell to wh.at it alludes, md give your J. Rule. 



232 SYNTAX. [Order of Parsing-.} 

XIII. §(^In the general business of parsing, remember that ev- 
ery part of speech and subdivision is named according to its gen- 
eral use ; and that when it is applied to some purpose different 
from what its name or definition represents, you are to describe 
its application as it is, if right ; and to change its application when 
you find it wrongly applied ; and 

XIV. {^Lastly — Remember to think for yourself, to exer- 
cise your own judgment, bearing in mihd that in science, as in 
morals, authority can not make right, what, in itself, is wrong ; 
or make wrong, what, in itself, is right — that in Science and Law, 
in Philosophy, in every thing, the language of the inquirer for 
truth should be, " How is this matter P^ not merely, " How have 
other men regarded itV 



371 CASES, DIRECT AND INDIRECT. 

I. a A name or substitute is said to be in the subjective case, 
direct, when it denotes the direct and leading subject, and acts as 
the basis or foundation of the remark which is made, by joining 
an asserter to the name or substitute. This is seen, 

h First, when but one name or substitute is used to denote a 
subject ; the name or substitute having an asserter referring to it, 
and depending on it ; as, 

Julia HAVING DIED, Johu RETURNED. Janies WRITES, Is George 

sick ? 

c Second, when several words are used to denote persons or 
things that are jointly or separately, yet equally, the subjects of 
remark ; the subjective words having the same relation to the as- 
serter ; as, 

Seth and George visit us. James or Henry mu st go home. No sun, 
no moon, no star gives light. 

d A name or substitute is in the subjective case indirect, 
First, when it is added to a direct subjective word for empha- 
sis, or to particularize or describe the direct subject; as, 

Julia, herself, worked that vail. John Williams, the merchanty 
went to London. That man is Mr. Clay. He is 2i statesman. 

e Second, when it is joined by a connective to a foregoing .scn- 
tence, to participate in the sense of the asserter, or of that and 
whatever else may be said of the direct subjective ; as, 

Hannah is at school, and Grace ^nd Mary. Julia must go 
home, or Sarah or Harriet. James is sick, as, also, his brother. [In 
these examples, the combinations in small capitals are perfect sea«» 
tences with or without the indirect subjective words in Italic.} 



{Amlysis] ^VNTAx. 1233 

/ Third, wlien it Is joine(3 to the sentence or to the direct sub- 
jective, by the connective not, or as well as : Thus, 

Virtue, not rolling suns, matures the soul. James is engaged in study, 
as well as George — or, James as well as George, is engaged in study. 

II. A word is said to be in the possessive case direct, when it 
^ebote» of itself, by its form, the possessor, as such ; as, John^s 

book : and in the possessive case indirect, when used to particu- 
larize or describe the person or thing denoted by a direct posses- 
sive word ; as, 
John's skill, as a musician, is great. Jane's toil, as a teacher, is done. 

III. A word is said to be in the objective case direct, when u- 
sed to denote the object of an action or fact, or of relation ; as, I 
BOUGHT an apple for Henry : and in the objective case indirect 
when used to particularize or describe the direct object ; as, I love 
my TEACHER, the guide of my early years. 



ANALYTICAI^ RULES, 

APPLIED IN PARSING, AND USED AS GUIDES IN COMPOSITION. 



RULE I— PART 1. 

372 A word in the subjective case, direct, has 
an asserter referring to it and depending onit; asj 

James writes elegantly. Julia having died, John return- 
ed home, /am well. We are near home. Seth and George 
VISIT their cousins often. " Thou art my guide. "*a 

*a For the distinctions between the direct, and the indirect subjective 
case, see letters a, b, c, d, e, f, of 371. 

h In the first of these examples, the asserter ivrites is seen to refer fothe 
subjective word James to denote the person who is the subject of the re- 
mark. At the same time the asserter is seen to depend onihe n-a,u\e James, 
thus used in the subjective case direct : for, though the asserter, thus joined 
to the name James, makes perfect sense, {James writes elegantly,) yet if 

the name was omitted, the rest of the sentence would be nonsense : ( ^ 

writes elegantly.) This shows the truth of what the rule says — that the 
asserter refers to, and depends on, the word in the subjective case direct. 

c In the next example, the name Julia is seen to be in the direct subjec- 
tive case, and to have the asserter having died referring to, and depending 
•on, the name. This part of the whole expression, {Julia having died,) does 
Slot constitute an independent remark, it is true ; as this is but an auxiliar 
20* 



234 SYNTAX. [Analysis] 

RULE I— PART 2. 

373 A word in the subjective case indirect, re- 
lates to an asserter which may depend on a direct 
subjective word ; as, 

James is Wl^er than Helen. Sarah is as old as Julia. Han- 
nah IS at school, and Grace and Mary. Go, as my friend, and 
invite William. ' Virtue, not rolling suns, matures the soul.''*a 

sentence — but the name Julia is, notwithstanding, the dependence of the 
asserter having died. 

d In the last example but one, the names Seth and George zxe'in the sub- 
jective case direct, relating, alike, to the asserter visit, and having, alike, 
the asserter referring to, and depending on, the names. These two names 
denote the two persons who dire, jointly or unitedly, the subjects of the o?ie 
remark. The relation of the asserter to these two names, is the same that 
it would be if they should stand thus : 

Seth f Seth f 

I > visit us — or, | > are my friends — the two names 

George ) George 3 

being, not separately, but unitedly in the subjective case direct, from their 
connection with the asserter visit, or are. 

€ The number of the direct subjectives of an asserter is not limited, but 
depends wholly on the nature of the matter treated of, and the taste of the 
author. Thus, 

I. James, f II. *' No sun, ^ 

Henry and > are my cousins. No moon, V gives light." 

William, 3 No star, ) 

Here the three names in diagram I, are jointly, unitedly, in the subjective 
case, from their connection with the asserter are — and the three names in 
diagram II, are separately, individually, in the subjective case : the pur- 
pose of the speaker or writer being to affirm the fact of each subject, separ- 
ately. 

*a For the distinction between the direct, and the indirect subjective 
case, see letters a, h, c, d, e,f, of 371. 

b In the first example, the name James is the direct subjective word to 
which the asserter refers, and on which it depends ; yet the name Helen, 
in the subjective case indirect, denotes a person who is as much the subject 
of remark as is the man James : but while the name James has the asserter is 
referring to it, and depending on it, [as, * James is taller' — making perfect 
sense,] the name Helen merely relates to the asserter, (taking from that re- 
lation its distinction of case,) but does not have the asserter depending on 

it — for, to say, " is taller than Helen," would be nonsense — yettosay, 

«^ James is taller," is perfect sense — all which proving that the asserter de- 
pends on the direct subjective, while the indirect subjective, though^dencfr 
ting one of the subjects of the remark, merely relates to the asserter . 

c In the third example, the name Hannah is the direct subjective word 
to which the asserter is refers, and on which it depends , as, ' Hannah is at 
school'— making perfect sense ; yet the names Grace and Mary, in the sub- 



[Analysis] sywtax. 23& 

RULE II— PART 1, 

374 An asserter, not in the commanding or the 
dependent mode, should agree in its subjective 
termination with the name or substitute on which 
it depends ; as, 

1 James lorites elegantly. 2 I am well. 3 We are near 
home. 4 Seth and George visit their cousins often. 5 Thou 
art my guide. *a 

6 James is taller than Helen. 7 Sarah is as old as Ju- 

jective case indirect, denote persons who are subjects of the remark, (as 
much as is the person Hannah,) — persons of whom it is affirmed, they are 
at school. In this sentence, the sense is complete, as far as it extends, m/>^- 
the name Hannah, and without the other names — the asserter is depending 
on the name Hannah ; the last two names relating to the asserter is, and 
what follows it, [' at school,'] but not having the asserter depending on 
them. 

d In the last example the name virtue is the direct and leading subjective 
word on which the asserter depends ; while the ^r^direct subjective word 
suns relates to the asserter, which depends on the direct subjective word 
virtue. The name suns has no more effect on the asserter than as though 
the name was enclosed in parenthesis ; as, ' Virtue, (not rolling suns,) ma- 
tures the soul.' 

e The indirect subjectives have the same relation as though they stood 
thus: 

Virtue, ^matures the .oul. Cat school, 

rolling sui>s,S ^"'0 ^G'^^-xd Mary. 

/ {0=-I. In the example, " Go, as my friend, and invite William," the 
asserter is used in the commanding mode absolut e-^{\\ot having a direct 
subjective on which to depend) — and the name friend, in the subjective 
case indirect, relating to the asserter, which is independent of it, making 
full sense without it — [as, « Go, and invite William.'] 

II. From the foregoing, (/, I,) we learn that the asserter to which the m- 
direct subjective relates, may depend on a direct subjective, or may be u- 
sed absolute in the commanding mode, not depending on any subjective 
word. 



*a In the first example it is seen that the asserter writes refers to and de- 
pends on the name James with which it agrees in its subjective termination; 
as, James writes, I lorite, we write. 

b In example second, the asserter am refers to, and depends on, the SB-' 
•tiftMl^/, with which it agrees in its subjective termination; I am^ not I are. 

c In example third, the asserter refers to, and depends on, the substitute 
tee, with which it agrees ; as. We are, not we am^ or is. 

d hx example fourth, the asserter visit refers to, and depends on, the two 



"236 SYNTAX. [Analysis] 

lia. 8 Hannah 25 at school, and Grace anJ Mary. 9 Virtue, 
not rolling suns, matures the soul. 10 John's whole property 
is a farm and a store. 11 A farm and a store are John's 
whole property. 12 I saw as nnany persons as were standing 
■outside. 13 Seth bought such fruit as was needed. 14 Wil- 
lian:i bought more apples than were carried away.'\A 

subjective words, the names Seth and George, with which, unitedly con- 
sidered, it agrees in its subjective termination ; as, 

Seth -) 

I > visit, not visits — 

George ) 

though the asserter, if depending on either of these names, separately con* 
sidered, would be different m its subjective termination ; as, Seth or George 
visits, not visit. 

e In example fifth, the asserter art refers to, and depends on, the direct 
subjective word thou, with which it agrees in its subjective termination ; 
as, thou art, not thou a?7i, or is, or are. 



\a In example sixth, the asserter whas a direct dependence on the name 
James, with which it agrees : yet, although the name Helen, in the subjec- 
tive case indirect, relates to the asserter, the asserter does not depend on 
the name Helen, but only on the name James. Qcf^The same ma> be said 
of the asserter is, in example seventh, in reference to the names Sarah and 
Julia. 

B In example eighth, the asserter is refers to, and depends on, the name 
Hannah, from which it takes its form, or with which it agrees in its sub- 
jective termination ; as, Hannah is, not are ; yet the names Grace and Ma- 
ry in the subjective case indirect, though relating to the asserter, have not 
the asserter at all depending on them, or agreeing with them ; the asserter 
depending on, and agreeing with, the direct subjective word Hannah. 

c In example ninth, the asserter depends on, and agrees with the direct 
subjective word virtue; as, virtue matures, not mature: for, though the 
indirect subjective word suns, (see letter/, p 233,) relates to the asserter 
matures, and takes its subjective character from that relation; yet the asser- 
ter has no dependence on, or agreement with, the name suns : but, if the 
names had stood, ' Rolling suns, not virtue,' &c. the name suns would have 
been in the subjective case direct, and would have had the asserter depending 
on it, and agreeing with it ; as, ' Rolling suns, (not virtue,) mature,' &c. 

D In example tenth, the asserter is refers to, depends on, and agrees with, 
the direct subjective word , propeity ; (as, his property is a farm and a 
store.) The asserter does not take its form or termination from the ifidirect 
subjectives, farm and store. 

E In example eleventh, the asserter are refers to, and depends on, and a- 
grees with, the direct subjective words far7n and store, ujiitedly considei>- 
ed ; as, A farm and a store are his property. 

F In example twelfth, the asserter were standing refers to, and, by the 
aid of the connective as, depends on the name persons, with which it agrees; 
the udJnQ persons being in the tvTo-foldcase, representing the objective, from 



[Analysis'] syntax. 237 

RUIiE II— PART 2. 

375 An asserter may agree with a foregoing 
sentence, as its subjective phrase, when it is 
joined to the sentence by the connective as : 
thus, 

1 " James died early in September, as appears from this 

its relation to smo, (showing what objects 1 saw,) and the swSjective, from 
its relation to were standing, (showing who were standing.) 

G I. In example thirteenth, the asserter was needed refers to the name 
fruit, on which, by the aid of as, it depends, and with which it agrees, (as, 
the fruit was, not were,) the name fruit being in the two-fold case, objec- 
tive after bought, and «M&jective before was needed, QHTThesame remark 
may be made of the asserter were carried, in example fourteenth, in its con- 
nection with the name apples, with which it is joined by the connective than^ 

II. Oc|=A connective substitute, representing a word of the first or the 
third person, requires the same form of the asserter depending on it, that 
would be required by the word for which the connective substitute stands ; 
as, The man was there — The man who was there is my friend. The 
METS were there — The men who ?<>ere there are my friends, lam your 
friend — I who am your friend advise you thus. I teach school — I who 
teach school advise you thus, A man teaches your school — 

C WHO ^ 

I am the man < 5 > teaches your school. 

( THAT ) 

III. When a connective substitute stands for a simple, or an adname sub- 
stitute of the second person, it requires the same form of the asserter depen- 
ding on it that would be required by the word for which it stands ; as, John 
YOU are my friend — John, you who are my friend should not treat me 
thus. [See 148, p 77,] and, 

IV. In the grave style, when a connective' substitute stands for a name 
of the second person, it requires the same form of the asserter that the sub- 
stitute ^Aom would require. «' Thou art above all other gods." "Our 
Father, WHO ar^ m Heaven." 

V. The pupil should remember that two or more names or substitutes in 
the singular form denoting different subjects that are considered unitedly, 
not separately, require the same form of the asserter that one name or sub- 
stitute in the plural form would require ; as, James and Julia are here — 
or, My FRIENDS are here — or. They are here. 

VI. Different names or substitutes in the singular form, though taken 
connectedly, require the singular form of the asserter if all the names are 
used to mention, characterize, or describe the one subject ; as, " The Fa- 
ther of his country is no more." 

The warrior J ^ 

the statesman, and > has gone to his eternal rest. 

the philanthropist, ) 

VII. Names, though in the plural form, when denoting time, distance> 



238 SYNTAX. [Analysis] 

letter." 2 '' The circumstances were described as fol- 
lows. ^^* a 



376 An asserter in the commanding or the de- 



RULE II— PART 3. 
;rter m the comman 

C may depend on a name or substitute to denote the subject : 
pendent mode < = 

( may be used absolute in a sentence of general remark or 
address ; as, 

1 John ; GO home to assist your brother. 2 Julia ; study to 
improve your mind. 3 Friends ; let us retnrfi to write our let- 



money, weight, or measure, meaning the amount, sum, ot»«ffl*v:?ity, require, 
respectively, the singular form of the asserter ; as. 

Sixty minutes ) , , r t r x ^ j 

. i > was too long lor Julia to study. 

An hour ) 

Three miles > l c r * n 

. , > was too tar for me to walk. 

A league ) 

Two thousand pounds > • ii t 

» ^ yis more than James can carry. 

Ten dollars ) . l r al * u i 

. J } was too much tor that book. 

An eagle ) 

A 'k ) ^^^ divided among twenty sailors.'* 

VIII. OO-Asserters depending on * defective^ nzmes v?Lry their forms ac- 
cording to the usage of the language. For this, see the list of * defective 
names,' under the head of Distinctions of Number, in « Synthesis^' after 
the * General Exercises in Parsing.' 

*a In example 1 , the asserter appears refers to the whole sentence de- 
scribing the event of James' dying ; which event appears from the letter. 
The asserter, it is seen, is joined by the connective as to the sentence de- 
scribing the event : the asserter, itself, depending on the sentence to which 
it is joined by the aid of as. The whole sentence is singular in sense, ex- 
pressing a single event : the asserter is therefore in the singular form ; as, 
appears, not appear. 

h In example 2, the asserter depends on, and agrees with, the sentence, 
* The circumstances were described,' as a subjective.phrase — the sense of 
the sentence, taken as a whole or a single fact, (the description of the cir- 
cumstances,) requires the asserter depending on it to be in the singular form; 
as, follows, not follow. It means the same as, ' The description of the 
circumstances was as /o//mos.' [Here the asserter /o//oi^s depends on, 
and agrees with, the word description in the two-fold subjeclive case, (to 
which the asserter follows is joined, by as)— 'the word description being 
in the subjective case from its connection with was; as, also, in the same 
case^from its connection with follows.] 



[Analysis] syntax. 239 

ters. 4 Long live the friends of virtue. 5 " Hallowed be thy 
name. 6 Thj kingdom come. 7 Thy will be DONE.'"*a 

8 Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 9 " God said, 

* Let there be light,' and there was light." 10 *' God said, 

* Let there be lights in the firmament of heaven,' and so it was."|A 

RULE III. 

377 A word in the simple possessive form and 



*a In the first example, the name John is as much in the subjective case 
as the word you,won\d be if used ; as, you go home — the asserter go refer- 
ring to, and depending on, the name John to denote the subject of the com- 
mand. Tb a55w^, in the same example, refers to, and depends on, the 
name John, to denote the subject of remark, and also depends on the asser- 
ter go. [See aa, p 108.] 

b The asserters in these two modes, though referring to, and depending 
on, the subjective word, have no agreement with it in their subjective ter- 
minations ; for whatever may be the person or form of these subjective 
words, the asserters undergo no change in form or termination; as, Julia; 
study to improve your mind. Girls ; study to improve your minds. 

c In example 3, the asserter let, in the commanding mode, depends on 
the name friends, in the subjective case ; and the asserters return, and to 
write, in the dependent mode, refer to, and depend on, the word us, in the 
two-fold case — the obj. after let, and the sub. before return and to write. 

d In example 4, the asserter live, though in the commanding mode, is u- 
sed to express desire — [see g, h, i, j, p 113] — and depends on the name 
friends, of the third person, but having the same form, and being in the 
same mode as though employed with a word of the second person, and to ex- 
press command ; as, " Live ye the life of the righteous, that you may die 
his death." 

e In examples 5, 6 and 7, the asserters, though used to express desire, 
are in the commanding mode, and depend on their respective subjective 
words, name, kingdom and ivill, 

fA In example 8, the asserter remember, in the commanding mode, and 
the asserter to keep, in the dependent, are both used absolute, or without 
any name or substitute on which to depend — [see 188, p 103, and *a, b, c, 
p 219.] 

B In each of the examples, 9 and 10, the asserter let is used in the com- 
mandmg mode absolute : though the asserter be is in the dependent mode, 
refers to, and depends on, the name light, in the twofold case — the object- 
ive before let, and the sw6jective before be. 

c 5Cf"ln parsing examples under this part (3) of Rule II, the pupil will 
repeat the first line of the rule with what is in the upper part of the brace 
if the asserter depends on a name or substitute : but if the asserter is 
used absolute^ he will repeat Vne first line with what is in the lower part of 
the brace. 



240 SYNTAX. [Analysis] 

case must precede, and depend on, the word or 
phrase denoting the thing possessed ; as, 

JohrCs book. Maria's friend. I lost my knife. Seth ; will 
you lend your unfibrella.*a 

RULE IV— PART 1. 

378 A name or a substitute, (not connective,) 
given in addition to another for the purpose of 
emphasis or explanation, must be in the same 
case 5 as, 

Julia, herself^ will work that vail. John Williams, the 
merchant^ went to London. Seth Davidson, my companion 
in distress, has returned home. I regard him as my brother. — 
*' An honest man ! the noblest work of God." *' Ye good dis- 

*a In all of the foregoing examples it is seen that the words in the posses- 
sive case depend on the following names denoting the things possessed : for 
to say, '^Woii my — my — !' would seem nonsense; while to say, 'Host 
my book,' would be perfect sense. This shows that the word my, depends, 
for its place — its use, on the name following, and denoting the thing posses- 
sed. So is it with the words John's, Maria's, and your. 

b Suppose Henry's teacher had sent him home at an unusual hour, and 
that Henry's father disapproved the fact of his return ; 1 might then say, 
' Henry's returning from school displeased his father.' Here the word 
Henry's, in the simple possessive form and case, precedes, and depends on, 
tlie phrase returning from school, which pertained or belonged to Henry, 
(the man,) and which displeased Henry's father ; but it depends more im- 
mediately on the ass€7'tive name returning ; as much as it would have de- 
pended on the mere name return, had that been used. Thus, 

Henry's < ^^J^urrf i ^^^^ school displeased his father. 

It was not Henry, himself, as a person, merely, that displeased his father. 
The father was not displeased with Henry; he was pleased with him that 
he obeyed his teacher — but he was displeased with what Henry did — 

C return from school — 
with his < z 

^ returning from school. 

c From the foregoing it is seen that a word in the possessive case may de- 
pend on a phrase or combination of words describing a fact done, as well 
as a name denoting a mere object or thing possessed. 

d {lX|=In parsing a word in the two-fold case, including the possessive 
with the subjecfwe or o&jective or both [See letter/, p 65,] the relation and 
dependence of the possessive case are merged or lost in the sub]ective re- 
lation, or the o&jective relation and dependence. Of course, no rule is ne- 
cessary concerning- the possessive meanmg of the word thus used in the 
two-fold case. 



{Analysis] syntax. ^ 241 

tressed, ye noble few, bear up awhile." James : whom did you 
meet.? Henry Jackson."^ a 

RULE IV— PART 2. 
379 A name in the possessive case indirect, 
may be used without the possessive sign, (' or '*) 
to explain in reference to the direct possessive 
word; as, 

Harriet's success, as a teacher, is unrivalled. My business, 
as a philosopher, is to describe facts. I purchased my watch at 
the jeweler H. Judson's store — or, at H.Judson, the jeweler's 
store. I 

*a All words used in accordance with tiiisrule, for the sake of emphasis 
or explanation, are in their respective cases iwdirectin their reference to the 
w'ords to which they are added, in the di/ectcdises. The distinctions of rfz- 
rect and indirect, are applied to words in the independtni case, on the same 
principle as to the possessive or the objective,- a word being in the indepen- 
dent cz^e, indirect, when used to particularize or describe the person or 
thing denoted by the word in the independent case, direct; as. An honest 
man! the noblest work of God— the name man being in the independent 
case, direct — and the word work in the same case indirect. 

b These words are used for emphasis or explanation in such relation, (m 
certain cases indirect,) to the sentences in which they occur, that when in 
the subjective case, they have no influence on the form of the asserter ; as, 

John's ( two FARMS and three STORES, ) were sold at auction. 
\ his whole property, ) 

John's ( whole property, ) was sold at auction. 

\ two farms and three stores, ^ 

c In the first example in the diagram, the names farms and stores are 
the direct subjectives of the asserter it'erc^oW, and give the asserter its form, 
while the word property, in the subjective case indirect, (being given in ad- 
dition to this, and explanatory of the names farms and stores,) does not in 
the least influence the asserter to which it is in the subjective case indirect. 

d In the next diagram, the word property, in the direct subjective case, 
determines the form of the asserter was sold. The two following names, 
given in addition to, and explanatory of, the name property, are in the sub- 
jective case indirect, and do not influence tlie asserter. 

e In the last example given under the rule, the word whom is in the ob- 
jective case, direct, from its relation to the asserter did meet; and the 
name Henry Jackson, in the objective, indirect, as it is given in addition to, 
and explanatory of, the direct objective word whom. By the question, 
ivhom did yon meet ? there is an admission that somebody was met, and 
the name Henry Jackson explains by showing tvho it was. 

fThese words in the possessive case indirect, sustain the relations descri- 
bed, only by their reference to the direct possessive words, denoting the 
same persons or things. [See 130, II, and 11 p 233.] 
21 



242 SYNTAX. [Analysisi 

RULE IV— PART 3. 

380 A phrase or any part of speech, used to 
explain another, meaning the same thing, must 
sustain the same relation as that which it is used 
to explain ; as, 

James : to whom shall I present this book ? To Helen. — 
In whose house do you reside ? In William's. "Plato calls 
QUITTING SENSE,* imitating God.''^'\a 

RULrE IV— PART 4. 

381 A name, or substitute, (not connective,) 
meaning what is expressed by a phrase or a sen- 
tence, may be in the independent case, or any oth- 
er case ; [according to circumstances ;] as, 

" The curfew tolls — the knell of parting day." " Fear God, 
and keep his connmandments, for this is the whole duty of man."jA 

*Ceasing from sensual pleasures. 

fa In the first example, the phrase to Helen, is given in addition to the 
phrase to whom, in the interrogative sentence before it, to which it refers — 
the last relative, to, showing the relation between the fact (contemplated) 
of my presenting the book, and the person denoted by the name Helen, in 
the objective case direct, from its relation to the word to — just as the first 
word to shows the relation between the fact (contemplated) of my presen- 
ting the book, and some person indicated or brought to mind by the inter- 
rogative substitute whom, in the objective case direct, from its relation to, 
and dependence on, the word to. 

h In the next example, the phrase in William's is used to explain the 
phrase in ivhose house — the name William's being in the two-fold case, 
corresponding with the possessive and objective, in the phrase which in 
William's is used to explain — the word William's being in the t\TO'fold 
case: in the possessive case, and objective case, depending on the rela- 
tive in. 

c In the last example, the phrase imitating God is used to explain the 
character of the fact expressed by the phrase quitting sense — yet the asser- 
tive name imitating is in the objective case indirect, from its relation to the 
mere asserter calls, just as the assertive name quitting is in the objective 
case direct from its relation to calls; yet the assertive name iinitating, like 
a mere asserter, has the name God in the objective case direct, depending 
on it, just as the assertive name quitting has the name sense in the objec- 
tive case direct, depending on that. 

|a In the first example, the name knell means the fact expressed by the 
foregoing sentence, the fact of the curfew or evening bell's tolling ; and is 
in the independent case — ^just as the sentence which this word knell ex- 
plains, is an independent sentence. 

B In the next example, the adname substitute this means the fact mea- 



l^nalysis] syntax. 243 

RUL.E IV— PART 5. 

382 A name or substitute may be used in ad- 
dition to, and explanatory of, a phrase express- 
ing a fact, and may have the same relation to a 
sentence ; as, 

1 He had buried ( what contents man here, 
( his health, his joys, his hope. 

2 James accomplished ( what was agreed on, > and returned. *a 
I the printing, 5 

RUIiE V— part 1. 

383 An intransitive or a receptive asserter may 
have before it a word in the subjective case, di- 
rect, and after it, one in the subjective case, in- 
direct, describing or particularizing the subject ; 
as, 

Julia is my friend. Washington was appointed comman- 
der-in-chief. The CHILD was named Samuel. James hoped to 
become an engineer. George was recommended as an honest 
man.'\K 

tioned by the foregoing sentence ; and is in the subjective case direct from 
its relation to the asserter is. 



*a In example 1, the names health, joys, and hope^ are given to explain, 
the phrase above it. The phrase, as a whole, is in the objective case, di- 
red, from its relation to the transitive asserter had buried, and the names, 
unitedly considered, are in the same case, mdirect, from their reference to 
the phrase, and indirect relation to the same asserter — yet the connective 
substitute, as one word, is in the two-fold case, the objective, direct^ after 
had buried, and subjective, direct, before contents. 

b This remark is essentially true of the name printing, in its connection 
with, and relation to, the phrase above it, and the asserter accomplished. 

fA In such examples, the direct subjective word determines the foi'm of 
the asserter ; as, " His meat was locusts and U'ild honey." Henry's whole 
property is three farms, two stores and a flour mill — or. Three farms, two 
stores and a flour mill are Henry's whole property. 

B In examples of the kind mentioned by this rule, the subjective, mdi- 
rect, may be different in person from the subjective, direct. Thus, " I 
am he whom ye seek. " Here the direct subjective word is of the first per- 
son, and the mdirect subjective, he, of the third person, though both de- 
noting the same being or individual. " Thou wast my guide, philosopher, 
and friend." Here the direct subjective word thou, is of the second per- 
son, and the three mdirect subjectives, of the third person. See b, c, p 54. 

c In examples of this kind, the direct subjective may be singular in form, 



244 SYNTAX. [Analysis] 

RULE V— PART 2. 

384 An intransitive or a receptive assertermay 
have before it its direct subjective, with a connec- 
tive or an interrogative substitute, as an indirect 
subjective, meaning the same person or thing; as, 

James is the man that 1 thought he was. Jane is what I had 
understood she was. You must take Henry for what he is rep- 
resented to be. Who do you think /am .^*a 

RULE V— PART 3. 

385 An intransitive or a receptive asserter, u- 
sed as an assertive narae, with a possessive word, 
before it, may have after it a subjective, indirect, 
meaning the same person or thing ; as, 

William's having become judge, changed his whole demean- 
or. Seth's BEING MADE the victim of intolerance, awoke him to 
patriotism. I A 

and the mdirect subjective, js/ura^; as, 'His meat wdiS locusts and wild 
honey ;' or the direct may be plural, and the imiirect, singular ; as, ^Lo- 
custs and wild honey were his meat.' 

*a Here the first asserter was has the direct subjective word he, on which 
it depends ; while the indirect subjective that, a connective substitute, re- 
lates to the asserter. 

h In the second example, the asserter toas has as its direct subjective, s/^e, 
and, as its indirect subjective, the word what, in the two-fold case — sub- 
jective, indirect, from its relation to is, before it, and the same from its re- 
lation to was, after it. [The sam6 remark may be made of the asserter is 
represented, as connected with he and what — and of am, in connection 
with /and who. 

fA Here the \woxA juds;e is seen to be in the subjective case, indirect, af- 
ter the assertive name having become, just as it would be after the mere as- 
serter became; as, William A^-came judge. 

B The whole phrase, William's having become judge, is a substitute 
phrase, in the subjective case, direct, from its relation to the asserter chan- 
ged; the name iVilliani's being in the simple possessive case, preceding, 
and depending on, the ^Yiva^se having become judge — [see note b, p 240.] — 
The phrase, having become, as an assertive name, (taken with its attendant 
words,) is in the subjective case, direct, from its relation to changed; and the 
name judge, in the subjective, indirect, after the assertive name Aaymo- be~. 
come, to which it relates. The name ;wf^o-e sustains to the assertive nam e^ 
having become, the same relation that it would sustain to the mere asserter 
became; as, William became judge— Wi\{\dxsi.'s having become Judge, &c. 



lAnatysis] syntax. 245 

RULE V— PART 4. 

386 An intransitive or a receptive asserter, u- 
sed as an assertive name, may have after it an indi- 
rect subjective, describing the person or thing de- 
noted by a prior ^w^jective or <?6jective word ; as, 

The MAN was unhappy in being the slave of party prejudice. — 
I found Henry sorry for having been made the dupe of his false 
friend. *a 

RULE VI. 

387 A word or phrase in the independent case 
may stand distinct from a sentence, or may refer 
to a sentence, or be referred to by one ; as, 

Henry : Julia has gone to school. " An honest man ! the no- 
blest work of God." " glourious hour ! blest abode /" — 
Seth : where did you see my brother ? " Oh Israel ! thou hast 
ilestroyed thyself." To be plain with you, I think you were 
wrong. "fA 

*a Here the name slave is just as much in the subjective, indirect, after 
the assertive name being, as it would be after a regularly formed asserter ; 
as, The man was the slave. So is it with the word dupe, in the subjective 
case, indirect, after the assertive name having been made; as, Henry had 
beeji made the dupe, &c. I found Henry sorry for having been made the 
dupe, &c. 

h In the first example, the whole phrase, being the slave of party preju- 
dice, is a substitute phrase, in the objective case after, and depending on, 
the relative in — the word being is used as an assertive name, in the objec- 
tive case, (in iisname capacity,) from its immediate connection with, and 
dependence on, the relative in; and the word slave, in the subjective case 
after being, (in its assertive capacity or character.) So is it with having 
"been made, and dupe. 

fA In the first example, the name Henry is of the second person, and in 
the independent case ; agreeing wUh the first part of the definition. The 
word man, in the next example, is of the third person, and in the indepen- 
dent case ; as, also, the phrases glorious hour and blest abode : yet the m- 
dividual words of these two phrases being parsed separately, the words g-^o- 
rious and blest are quahfying adnames, belonging to their respective names; 
while the names, themselves, (Jiour and abode,)'d.vQ of the ^/«VcZ person, and 
in the independent case. 

B The name Seth, in the next example, is in the independent case, though 
it is referred to by the sentence, by the word you, in the sentence ; accor- 
ding to the second part of the definition. The same may be said of the 
name Israel, and of the phrase to be plain with, exce\)t that this phrase re- 
fers to the sentence, instead of being referred to by the sentence. 
21* 



246 SYNTAX. lAndlystsl 

RULE VII— PART 1. 

388 A transitive asserter, used in a particular 
sense, requires depending on it, or referring to it, 
a word in the objective ease, denoting the object 
affected, or to which the fact is extended ; as, 

James ate the apples which I had given to Henry. Joseph 
OWNS a fann. Helen told me whom I should meet. George 
HAS more fruit than he can eat. I have as many books as I 
CAN READ. I bought such books as Henry selected. *a 

RULE VII— PART 2. 

389 A transitive asserter may be used in a gen- 
eral sense, without an objective ; or loith an ob- 
jective whose meaning is as indefinite as the sense 
of the asserter would be without it ; as, 

George eats voraciously. Seth reads well. Hannah was re- 
quested to sing something for the entertainment of the party. "("a 

*a In the first example, the asserter ate has the name apples, in the ob- 
jective case, depending on it—for, to say 'James — the apples,' would be 
nonsense ; though to say, ' James ate the apples,' is perfect sense. This 
shows that the objective word apples depends, for its place, on the transi- 
tive asserter ate, denoting the action by which the objects (the apples,) were 
affected. [See XXUI, p 32.] 

b The word which, in the same sentence, is in the objective case direct. 
It denotes the apples as the objects affected by the fact (of giving,) represent- 
ed by the transitive asserter had given, on which the objective wovdwhich 
depends. [See XXIII, p 32.] 

c In the example, " John owns a farm," the transitive asserter oe^m.s rep- 
resents the fact of owning as extending to an object, the farm. [See XXV, 
p 33.] The name /arm denotes the object to which the fact of owning ex- 
tends, and depends for its place on the asserter owns; as it would be non- 
sense to say, ' John a farm.' 

d In the example, ' George has more fruit than he can eat,' the name 
fruit is in the two-fold objective case, from its relation to, and dependence 
on, the transitive asserter has, and its referring to, though not depending 
on, the transitive asserter can eat — the name fruit expressing the idea of 
the substance which John has, and of the substance which (it is affirmed,) 
he can eat. The objective word fruit depends on the asserter has, and re- 
fers to, but does not depend on the asserter can eat — for the sentence would 
be good sense without the last clause ; as, ' John has fruit.* or, ' more 
fruit' — but nonsense without the first clause ; as, ' fruit than he can eat' t 
[The other examples are parsed in the same general manner.] 

JA Here the asserter eats expresses the idea of eating, generally consid- 
ered, not having reference to the eating of any particular thing ; though the 
asserter eats is necessarily transitive, for it is not possible that he should eat. 



[Analysis] syntax. 247 

RULE VIII. 

390 An intransitive asserter becomes transitive 
by having, depending on it, a name or substitute 
denoting the fact which the asserter expresses ; 
as, 

" I have fought the good fight, and shall soon sleep the sleep 
of death." The race of life which Seth ran, was very short. 
*' May I live the life of the righteous, that I may die his 

DEATH."* 

RULE IX. 

391 A transitive asserter may have, depending 
on it, two direct objectives, not connected, one 
denoting the object of the fact, and the other the 
object to, or for which, the fact occurs ; as, 

" Son ; GIVE me thy heart. ^' " Give us our daily bread.'''' — 
James taught Helen Grammar. I offered Samuel a carriage 
for his journey. George paid Albert 2,ome, money, '\a 

without eating something — yet the intention of the speaker or writer is, not 
to show what he eats, but how he eats. So is it with reads, in the next 
example. 

B The asserter to sing, in the last example, ig used in a sense quite as gen- 
eral or indefinite, as it would be without an objective ; the word something 
being incapable of adding any definite idea to the expression. I may say, 
" Hannah was requested to sing for the entertainment," &c. or, " Hannah 
was requested to sing something for the entertainment," &c. — and both 
forms of expression are alike indefinite or general in their meaning. 

*The principle recognized by this rule, is quite limited, and should not be 
carried so far as to sacrifice elegance of style — thus, ♦ I walked a ivalk be- 
fore breakfast,' would be very inelegant, and not consistent with good usage: 
though ' I took, or had a walk," &c. would be in accordance with elegance 
and good usage. [So, we say, ' I took a ride this afternoon ;' not ' I rode 
a ride,' &c.] 

fa In such examples, the objective words depend alike on the asserter ; 
though, sometimes, the first of each two objectives may not be used with- 
out the other ; thus, though it may be said, ' I offered a carriage,' as a 
perfect sentence, I may not say, • I offered Samuel' I may say, ♦ James 
paid Henry some money ;' ' James paid Henry ;' ' James paid money to 
Henry ' or, ' James paid money. ' 

h An asserter, thus used, in reference to one of the objectives, has a mean- 
ing different, in degree from what it has in its reference to the other. With 
some asserters, this meaning can be explained by corresponding words, hav- 
ing the same relation. With others, tlie sense, alone, can exhibit the differ- 
ent meanings. Thus, 

c ' James taught Helen Grammar.' Here the asserter taught , as used in 



248 SYNTAX. {Analysis] 

RULE X— PART 1. 

392 A receptive asserter may have, depending 
on it, a direct objective denoting what is repre* 
sented as pertaining to the subject of remark ; as, 

Helen was taught Grammar. Samuel was offered a car- 
riage for his journey. John was paid some money before he 
started. *a 

RULE X— PART 2. 

393 A receptive asserter may have, depending 
on it, a direct objective word denoting an object 
to which the subject of remark is represented as 
pertaining; as. 

Grammar was taught her'\ by a very good instructor. A 
carriage was offered Samuel for his journey. Some money 
WAS PAID John before he started. *a 



reference to the first objective word Helen, means instructed — he taught 
or instructed Helen : while in its reference to the other objective word 
Grammar^ the same asserter means imparted — James taught or imparted 
Grammar — meaning a knowledge of the science. It may stand in diagram, 
thus : 

( instructed ^ Helen. 
d James taught < > 

( imparted ) Grammar, or, 

C instructed Helen 
e James < Z 

( imparting Grammar. 

f Other asserters, thus used, may not have, (like the asserter taught, ) cor- 
responding words to explain their different meanings, in their reference to 
the different objective words ; but this deficiency in the language^ does not 
affect the relations of asserters when thus employed. [See remarks under 
rule X, part 2, below.] 

*a Rule IX, and Parts 1 and 2, of Rule X, are but different exhibitions 
of the same principle. Rule IX comprises the whole principle, and exhib- 
its it in one light ; parts 1 and 2, of Rule X, considered in connection, be- 
ing but the same principle exhibited in additional and different lights : thus, 

6 1 No one can doubt the correctness of the expression, ' James taught 
Helen* — using taught in the sense of instructed. 

2 No one can doubt the correctness of the expression, * James taught 

t Meaning Helen. 



[Analysis] syntax. 249 

RULE XI. 

394 All auxiliar asserter should, when it can, as- 
sume the office and relations of a principal, in- 
transitively, transitively, or receptively consider- 
ed ; as. 

If Helen will not remain, Julia icilL James can read Latin as 
well as Henry can Greek. I will buy the peaches if Jacob will 
the pears. Seth was not injured, but William was*a 

Grammar' for a livelihood ; using taught in tiie sense of imparled; as, He 
imparted ^knowledge of the science : and, consequently, 

3 No reasonable person can doubt the correctness of the expression, 
* James taught Helen Grammar .■' and, 

4 All this being conceded, none should doubt the correctness of either 
expression, ' Helen was taught Grammar ;' or, ' Grammar was 
TAUGHT her :' for, 

5 ([C|=If, as first, above, JdiXnes taught Helen ; then, certainly, Helen 
was taught [instructed'] — and, 

6 ^If, as second, above, James taught Grammar; then, certainly. 
Grammar was taught [ijiiparted] — and, 

7 QITFrom the foregoing premises, it follows, inevitably, that it is cor- 
rect to say, either, Helen was taught Grammar; or. Grammar w^as 
TAUGHT her. 

c In reference to the fact of ' George's paying Albert some money,' I may 
say, George paid Albert. Of course Albert icas paid. I may say, George 
paid some money. Of course, some money was paid. I may, then, say, 
George paid Albert same money ; or, Albert was paid some money: 
or. Some money was paid him. 

*a This trait of the auxiliar asserter is near akin to that of the substitute 
asserter, (see 177, p 100, and its notes,) but as the auxiliar asserter, as here 
used, assumes nothing but the office of a full asserter, it is distinguished 
from the substitute asserter, which embodies and represents the meaning^ 
of other, perhaps many other parts of speech at the same time. 

h In the first example, it is seen that the auxiliar will, as connected with 
the subjective word Julia, assumes the office or meaning and relation of 
the principal remain, while it retains its own powers as an auxiliar, in de- 
noting future time. 

c In the second example, the auxiliar can assumes the office and rela- 
tions of the principal transitive asserter read, v.^hile it retains its influence 
as an auxiliar in expressing ability to perform the action or fact which the 
principal denotes. It has the name Greek, m the objective case, depending 
on it, just as much as the principal asserter would have had if that had been 
used ; as, Henry can read Greek. [So is it with the auxiliar will, in the 
third example, in its relation to the subjective word Jacob, and the objec- 
tive word pears.] 

d In the last example, the auxiliar was^ as connected with the name Wil- 



250 



SYNTAX. 

RULE XII— PART 1. 



[Analysis] 



395 A principal adname must belong to, and 
depend on, the term denoting the person or thing 
that the adname is used to refer to, or describe, 
or quaHfy ; as, 

Julia gave me this book. George bought a watch at H. 
Judson's. Two men were crossing the bridge when it fell. — 
The first book I bought, I gave to Henry. Sweet apples are 
more nutritious than sour 0NEs.*a 



Ham, assumes the office of the principal receptive asserter injured; mean- 
ing just as much as was injured would have meant if both had been used 
with the name William, as they are with the name Seth; as Seth was not 
injured, but William was injured. [The sentence as first used in the exam- 
ple is good English ; but as here used it is not ; for the word injured should 
not be thus repeated.] 



*a In these examples it is seen that the adnames in Italic belong to, and 
depend on, the words in small, capitals, to which they are used to re- 
fer — the adname this being associated with, and belonging to, and depen- 
ding on, the name book — the adname a belonging to, and depending on, the 
name watch, &c. &c. The adname sour, it is seen, refers to, and depends 
on, the adname substitute ones, meaning apples ; the adname ww^ri^ioMS re- 
ferring or pointing back to the name apples, on which it depends . 

6 Adnames are often joined to substitute phrases to qualify the facts which 
the phrases express ; as, To argue with a bigot, is useless. Here 
the adname useless refers to, and depends on, the assertive name to argue, 
as connected with the words with a bigot — the whole phrase represents a 
fact which is regarded as useless; the sense of the whole expression bemg 
the same as Argument with a bigot isuseless. Argument, (thus 
limited,) is useless — To argue, (thus limited,) isuseless. 

c Many principal adnames may belong to one name or substitute, and may 
stand before, or after the name or substitute to which they refer : Thus, I 
may say of Adam Clarke, either 



-:^ studious, 
'=^p€rsevering, 
-=^ learned J 
^wise, 
^good, 
-^ active, 
'^useful, and 
^happy: 



i-g studious, ^[^ 

If persevering,^!^ 

!| learned, ^[^ 

\i. wise,i^ 

^a or, He was a{^ 

good,^ 
active, ^^ 
useful, ^ 
and happy i^ 



man. 



iilk 



/ In the foregoing diagram d, the substitute ^e, acting as a representative 
of the name Ada7n Clarke, has the various adnames referring to it, and de« 



[Analysis] syntax. 251 

RULE XII— PART 2. 

396 An auxiliar adname must qualify or limit 
the meaning of its principal, and belong, with the 
principal, to the term to which that refers ; as, 

A very large house. Sky blue silk. A red hot iron. — 
jDarA; GRAY cloth. Harriet is commenc?a&/?/ studious. Many a 
man has been ruined by confiding too much in others. We spent 
a FEW minutes in conversation. " How poor, how rich, is 
man !" The more attention you give your studies, the greater 
will be your proficiency. *« 

pending on it, just as the name would have had, if that had been used ; as, 
Adam Clarke was ^studiousy ^persevering, &c. 

g In the diagram e, the indefinite specifying adname a, as a princi- 
pal, belongs, individually, (or without reference to the other adnames,) to 
the name maw; as, He was a ^man," and the other, the eight, qualify- 
ing adnames, belong, individually, to the name man; each expressing a 
different quality or trait of the man mentioned ; and all expressing eight 
qualities of the one person. 

*a Here the adnames in Italic are all auxiliars, qualifying or limiting the 
meaning of their respective principals in small capitals, and belong- 
ing with them to the names denoting the persons and things to which they 
refer. 

b The word many, prefixed to a, might not be applied to a name in the 
singular form, without the word a between that and the name. Thus, 1 
may not say, many man, &c : but I may say, many a man, &c. The 
word a is the principal adname, belonging to the name man; and the word 
many is an auxiliar adname which qualifies, (by extending,) the meaning 
of the principal a, as connected with the name man, and which belongs, 
with a, to the name man, to which the principal refers. [The phrase many a 
man, means many men, individually considered — many single men — or men 
singly considered.] 

c The word a, preceding few, is auxiliar iofeiv, dibits principal, and be- 
longs with few to the name minutes. The meaning of the sentence, We 
spent a few minutes in conversation, would be different from that of, We 
spent few minutes in conversation. 

d Many a, and a few, seem the opposites of each other — Twany, which is 
plural in sense, requiring a between it and a singular name ; and a, which 
IS singular Xn sense, requiring /'eio between it and a plural name; as. 
Many a man — ^ few men. In all such examples the word many refers 
to the whole phrase a man., as well as to the individual word a, as its prin- 
cipal adname. So is it with the word a, in reference to the phrase few 
men, &c. 

e The word the, as twice used in the last example, is an auxiliar to the 
adnames more and greater ; being employed to mark definitely the propor-f 
tion of things with the facts mentioned. 



252 SYNTAX. ybialysis] 

RULE XII— PART 3. 

397 In an expression of command, a principal 
adname and an asserter may be used together, 
absolute, as an adname assertive phrase ; as, 

Be silent. Be wise. Be good. Be useful and happy* 

RULE XIII— PART 1. 

398 A principal modifier aids tlie euphony of 
a sentence, or modifies the meaning of a whole 
sentence, or the particular part of a sentence to 
which it refers ; as, 

" God said, ' Let therehe light,' and there was light." Time 
flies rapidly, and should be diliyently improved. The river flows 
gently through the wood. Henry speaks fluently. James, not 
content, went forward, and was soon taken. William, there, can 
not benefit me ; though here, he might possibly be of service to 
me. Seth is truly an orator. Harriet is certainly my friend |a. 

*Thi3 combination and use of the asserter and adname in a commanding 
phrase, are but a little variation of the principle described by rule H, part 3, 
and by 188, p 103 : [read these references] — for it is only the command 
which the asserter. alone, would express, extended by the use of the ad- 
name ; both the adname and the asserter being used absolute, or without 
dependence on a name or substitute. 

fa The pupil should tell whether the modifier is used for euphony or the 
other purpose, and tell, also, which particular word it chiefly qualifies ; 
keeping in mind what is taught by XLIV-V-VI-VU, p 37. 

b There, is used only to aid the euphony, (harmony in sound,) of the sen- 
tence in which it occurs. Rapidly is used to modify the meaning of the 
sentence in showing how time flies. Diligently is used to qualify so much 
of the sentence as expresses the fact of time's being improved. Gently 
modifies the sentence expressing the fact of {herivei's floiving^^s mention- 
ed. Fluently qualifies the fact of Henry's sj^euking. 

c JVo^, as used with the words James and content, modifies the meaning 
of the combination of two words. It denies what would otherwise be ex- 
pressed affirmatively. Forward modifies the meaning of the part of the 
sentence expressing the fact of James' going. Soon modifies the meaning 
of the rest of that sentence in qualifying the fact ol James' being taken. 

d Oc5="The modifiers there and here throw their modifying influence chief- 
ly upon the name William — showing, not the qualities but the circumstan- 
ces of the man, in reference to the facts mentioned. 

e ^^Truly refers to the sentence George is, but throws its modifying or 
qualifying influence chiefly upon the word orator: (to affirm this character- 
istic of the man, being my only purpose in mentioning him at all ;) in the 
same fanner as the modifier certainly refers to the part of the sentence 



^Analysis] syntax. 2B3 

RULE XIII— PART 2. 

399 An auxiliar modifier qualifies or limits the 
meaning of its principal, and, through that, the 
meaning of the sentence, or particular part of a 
sentence, to which it refers ; as, 

The river flows very gently through the wood. Henry speaks 
^Mz^e FLUENTLY. Georo^e travelled ?7zore f^ttw twenty miles ¥ kr- 
THER than William. The faster Richard walks, the sooner 
he will overtake his brother.*a [See diagram I, p 185.] 

RULE XIV— part 1. 

400 A principal relative requires, depending 
on it, or referring to it, an objective word deno- 

Harriet is, but qualifying or modifying in reference only to the phrase my 
friend. [I wish not to affirm so positively or emphatically that she is ; as 
no one doubts that, but that she is my friend. See XLIV-V-VI-VII, 
P37.] 

*a Here the auxiliar very qualifies the meaning of its principal gently ; 
by the influence of which principal, the modifying influence of very is ex- 
tended over the sentence describing the fact mentioned. [The same may' 
be said of quite, as associated with fluently.'\ 

b More than, the second auxiliar, as a phrase or combination, qualifies 
the meaning of the principal {farther,) with which it is associated : though 
it exerts this qualifying influence on farther, through the medium of twen,' 
ty miles, as the first auxiliar of farther-, the principal, 

c [That morethan, as an auxiliar, must be parsed together, is seen in note 
* 199. Whether this phrase or combination is used as an auxiliar modifier, 
adname, or relative, makes no difference as to tha fact of its bemg parsed 
together as one part of speech : George travelled morethan twenty miles 
farther than William — auxiliar modifier : George bought morethan twenty 
bushels of apples — an auxiliar a^Zname, qualifying the principal twenty; 
George resides morethan forty miles beyond Boston — an auxiliar relative, 
qualifying the principal beyond, through the medium of the first auxiliar 
forty miles — yet in all these examples morethan is to be parsed together as 
one part of speech.] 

d Twenty miles, as a phrase, is parsed together as an auxiliar modifier, 
{first auxiliar,) qualifying the meaning of the principal /ar^Acr, and, through 
the principal, exerting its modifying influence on the sentence describing the 
fact mentioned — (fA, p 185 — and 6 in parsing, p 189.) 

e The, as twice used in the last example, is an auxiliar modifier, used to 
limit the meaning of the principals faster and sooner, and thereby to aid or 
help them in marking definitely the proportion of the result to the action 
mentioned. \The, it should be remembered, may be used in this manner 
as an auxiliar adname, or an auxiliar modifier. See note e, p 251.] 
22 



254 SYNTAX. l^nalysis] 

ting the object to which the relative shows the re- 
lation of an eve?it, or another person or thing ; as, 

James went to New- York for his stock of goods. Allen 
Briggs, of Rome, is my friend. Seth resides near the cataract. 
Helen fell into the river. George resides beyond the Mississippi. 
John has as many children as he can provide fcrr. I have bought 
a book for you to read in. James walks like his brother. 1 vis- 
ited all of the family except Henry. *« 

RULE XIV— PART 2. 

401 An auxiliar relative qualifies or limits the 

*a In the first example, the relative to shows the relation of the event of 
James^ going, to the city mentioned, as the object to which he went : for 
shows the relation between the fact or event of his going to the city, and 
the stock (of goods) for which he went ; and of shows the relation of the 
stock or aggregate, the whole, to the goods^ as the things composing the 
stock or whole quantity. 

h Next, the relative of shows the relation of the man, Mr. Briggs, as 
mentioned, to the object, the village, as his place of residence ; he being of ^ 
belonging to, or residing in, the village. 

c Next, the relative near shows the relation of the fact or event of Seth's 
residing, to the cataract, as an object near which his residence is. 

d Into shows the relation of the event of Helen's falling, to the river, 
as the object into which she fell. 

e In each of the foregoing examples, described, the objective word de- 
pends on the relative immediately before it — but, 

/ Qd^In the next example, the relative for has no objective word depen- 
ding on it ; but it has one referring to it : as the name children, in 'he ob- 
jective after the asserter has, is also in the objective case, from its referring 
to the relative for, and denoting the class of objects for which John can 
provide. [This shows the name cAi/c?re« to be in the two fold objective 
case."] 

g Next, the relative for shows the relation of the fact of my buying the 
book, as mentioned, to the person denoted by the word you, as the object 
that the book was bought /or ; the objective word you depending on the 
relative for; while the relative in, though it has no objective word depen- 
ding on it, has, nevertheless, the objective word book, referring to it, and 
denoting the object in which the person is to read. 

h Next, the modifying relative like, shows the relation of the event of 
the person James' walking, or the man in the act of walking, to the man, 
his brother, as an object, in the same act or state ; the relation of one per- 
Bou^swalking, to another's, indicated by the name brother,a.svi^ed ; the name 
brother depending on the relative like. [See *a, b, c, d, p 195.] 

i Next, the independent relative except shows the relation of the fact of 
my visiting the family, to the person Henry, as an object excepted from 
the remark describing the event ; the name Henry depending on the rela- 
tive except. [See note *a, b, c, d, e, f, p 196.] 



[Analysis] syntax. 255 

meaning of its principal, and belongs to, and de- 
pends on, the principal ; as, 

Seth resides very near the cataract. Helen fell almost into 
the river. George resides fifty miles beyond the Mississippi. I 
stood exactly over the yawning chasm. *a 

RULE XIV— PART 3. 

402 C ^^ * that,^ if a connective substiute, as an objective before it : 

A relative < has objective words used interrogatively, Se/breorq/Ver it: and 
^ has all other simple objective words after it ; as, 
Those are the persons and carriages that I spoke of. What 
did you send fori or, For what did you send .'' Which books 
did you pay for ? or, For which books did you pay } Which 
store did you send to } or, To which store did you send ? Hel- 
en is the lady of whom I spoke ; or, I spoke of Helen. |a 

*a Here very, the auxiliar relative, qualifies the meaning of its princi- 
pal near, to which it belongs, and on which it depends. [It would be non- 
sense without its principel ; as, Seth resides very the cataract : but it 

is perfect sense with the principal ; as, Seth resides very near the cataract.] 

b The word «/mos^ qualifies or limits the sense of the principal into, ma- 
king the word into mean less, with its auxiliar, than it would ivithout it. 

c [A parallel to this influence of the auxiliar, is foimd in theasserter and 
other parts of speech having auxiliars : Thus, when I sa}', I write letters, I 
represent myself as doing, at times, the act mentioned. It implies that I 
have the ability, in declaring that I employ it: but when I say, 1 can 
WRITE letters, I mean, now, only tijat I have power or ability to do what 
the other form of expression represents me as doing. From this it is seen, 
that the asserter write means more without the auxiliar than with it : the 
aid which the auxiliar affords consisting in this : it prevents the principal's 
meaning too much.] 

d Fifty miles, as a phrase, or combination, acts as an auxiliar relative, 
limiting the meaning of its principal, beyond, showing how far beyond the 
Mississippi the person resides. It depends on its principal. 

e Exactly, as an auxiliar relative, limits the meaning of its principal, o- 
ver, and belongs to, and depends on, the principal. [See Diagram I, p 192.] 

fA In the first example, it is seen that the connective substitute that oc- 
curs, as it should, before the relative of, on which it depends. [' The per- 
sons and carriages that I spoke — ,' or, ' the persons and carriages I spoke 
of THAT,' would not be good sense : though the sentence as first given is 
perfectsense — which shows that the objective word that depends on the rel- 
ative of.] 

B In all the other examples except the last two, the sentences may, with 
equal propriety, (according to circumstances,) be so constructed, as to have 
the objectives before or after their respective objective words. 

c In the last two examples, the sentences are constructed as they should 
be, with the objective words after, yet near, their relatives ; as, Helen is 
the lady of whom I spoke— not wif om 1 spoke of &g. 



256 SYNTAX. \AnalysisJ 

RULE XIV— PART 4. 

403 Than^ followed by a connective substitute, 
and a comparative adname or modifier, may be- 
come a modifying relative, and have an objective 
word depending on it ; as, 

Washington — than whom a piirer patriot never rose. Bona- 
parte — than WHOM was never given a more striking illustration of 
the power and frailty of man, and the inconstancy of human affairs. 
Howard — than the light of whose benevolence, nothing, of earth, 
shines more brightly and cheering ly to the child of Adversity. 
Wilberforce — than whose fame, nothing is purer, brighter or more 
enduring* a 

RULE XV— part 1. 

404 The connective and, or, nor, not, as, than, 
or as well as, may join one name or substitute to 
another, in the same case ; as, 

Seth and Julia are at home. She or her brother will be 
here this evening. I saw her and Harriet this morning. — 
Samuel bought Richard's farm and George's. Harriet's and 
William's books were lost. Harriet's, not William's books 
were lost.|A. 

*a Here, first, the relative than is followed by the connective substitute 
whom, which, as an objective word, depends on than, as its relative. So 
is it with than and ivhom in the next example. The comparative adname 
purer, being in the first example, and the comparative adname phrase more 
striking, in the next. 

6 In the third example, the relative than, followed by the connective 
substitute whose, and the comparative modifiers more brightly and cheer- 
ingly, has the objective word light, depending on it as its relative. 

c In the last example, the relative than is followed by the connective sub- 
stitute lohose, and the comparative adnames ^wrer, brighter ^ &c ; and has 
the word fame as an objective, depending on it. 

d <)C|=In each of the four examples the name first given is in the indepen- 
dent case — being used as a prelude to the sentiment following it. 

fA In the first example, the names Seth and Julia, united by and, are in 
the subjective case, from their relation to the asserter are, 

B Next, the substitute she, and the name brother, connected by and,zxe 
in the same, the subjective case, from their relation to the asserter will be. 

c Next, the words her and Harriet are in the objective case, from their 
relation to the transitive asserter saw. 

D Next, the name George's in the two-fold case, the possessive and the 
objective, is connected by onci with the two names Richard's and farvh ia 



[Analysis] syntax. 257 

RULE XV— PART 2. 
405 A word ot any class, joined to another of 
the same class,* by the connective and, or, nor, 
not, as, as id ell as, than, but, or yet, sustains the 
same relation as the word to which it is joined ; 
as, 

Seth SLEPT and was taken. Georore is good, useful and 
HAPPY. Helen writes elegantly aw^ rapidly. I spoke to, 
OF, and before my friends. Mary : I have seen your father. 
When ? and where }-\a 

corresponding cases — the name Richard's being in the simple possessive 
case, and the name farm in the simple objective — both the names /arm and 
George'Sy in their objective relation, depending on the transitive asserter 
bought. 

E Next, the two names Harriet's and William's, (in both examples,) 
are, respectively, in the simple possessive case ; both alike preceding, and 
depending on, the name books, according to rule III. 

*Words of the three parts of speech, connectives, repliers^ and exclama- 
tions, may not be joined by connectives. 

t« Here, first the two asserters are joined by and, and refer to, and de- 
pend on, the name Seth. Next, the three adnames are connected, and be- 
long to, and depend on, the name George. Next, the two modifiers are 
connected, and qualify alike the fact of Helen's writing. Next, the three 
relatives are connected, and show their respective relations of the 07ie fact 
of my .speaking to the satne objects, the friends. Next, the two interrog- 
atives are connected, and have their reference to the fact concerning which 
they ask the questions. 

b I. (HFThe connectives above mentioned frequently connect adnames 
with appendant phrases or asserters, both describing in degree the same per- 
son or thing; as, James is from home, and quite unhappy. Hen- 
ry IS fatigued, yet cheerful and sociable. 

n. They may connect adnames with n>odifiers of place ; both referring 
to the same person or thing ; as, James is here, and \-ery lonesome. 

III. They may connect modifiers with appendant phrases, both qualify- 
ing some fact mentioned ; as, Henry walked with great care, as well 
as VERY FAST. Hannah studies at home, but very attentively. 

IV. They may connect whole simple sentences, each being joined by an- 
other connective to a foregoing sentence ; as, 

C WHERE / should meet Henry, 
James told n^e \ I 

( WHERE he would meet George. 
Here and connects the two combinations of words, or sentences, in the two 
lines after the brace ; while each where connects its own simple sentence 
with the foregoing one, James told me. 

c When, where, while, till, how, because, in case, lest, and provi' 
ded, and other modifiers of the same general character, may connect sen- 
tences, but not single words. 
22* 



258 SYNTAX. {Analysis^ 

RULE XVI. 

406 An interrogative, though referring to a 
foregoing sentence, stands distinct from the sen- 
tence to which it refers ; as, 

George : you ought to go home. Why ? I have found my 
long-lost book. Where ?* 

RULE XVIL 

407 A repUer, though referring to a foregoing 
question or remark, stands distinct from the 
phrase or sentence to which it alludes ; as, 

Helen : will you attend school to-day ? Yes. George : can 
you accompany me to the concert this evening ? No — [or, No, 
Sir.] " Henry died last evening at eight o'clock." " Yes : he 
has left us for his final rest in Heaven. "|a 

RULE XVIII. 

408 An exclamation stands independent of any 
word, phrase, or sentence expressing an object, 
quality, or event ; as, 

Oh ! Alas ! *' thou whose hand Earth's goodly fabric 
formed !" "0 ! the pain — the bliss of dying." " ye blest 
scenes of permanent delight !"J 

*In each of these two examples, it is seen that the interrogative clearly 
refers to the sentence before it, describing the fuct concerning which the in- 
terrogative asks the question : but nevertheless the interrogative stands per- 
fectly distinct or separate from the sentence — one person making the re- 
mark, and the other person, by the use of the interrogative, asking a ques- 
tion concerning the fact mentioned. 

!« In the first two examples, the repliers refer to, yet stand distinct from 
the sentences asking the questions, to which they allude. 

b In the last example, the replier yes refers to, yet stands distinct from, 
the sentence constituting the remark, (not question,) to which it alludes. 

$See LXVIII-IX, LXX, p 41— LXXXI, p 43-XCIV-V, p 45, and the 
notes under 354, p 212. 



gt^TAic. 259^ 



EXERCISES IN PARSING, 

With the application of the preceding Rules of Analysis. 



409 In these Exercises the Lessons are numbered to corres- 
pond with the rules which they are intended to illustrate. *« 

410 {jt^When the learner comes to any word, in parsing, let 
him turn at once to the diagram, (given in the ' Order of Par- 
sing f^) which bears the name of the part of speech which he is to 
parse. The diagram will be a sufficient guide to him as to 
the order in which he is to name the different traits of the word. 
Thus, 

411 {jf^In parsing a waTwe, as, ^ John visited his brother,' let 
him turn to Diagram I, page 226, and he will see that the order 
of parsing the name John, indicated by the diagram, is, 

John is a nz.Tne— particular — mascidine—of the third person — in the sin* 
gular form— in the subjective case, (direct,) from its relation to the asser- 
ter visited, according to Rule I — * A word in the subjective case, direct^ 
has an asserter,' &c. &c. 

licsson I. 

(Illustration of Parts 1 and 2, of Rule I.) 
John has more apples than Henry. 'Pride goeth before destruction, and 
a haughty spirit before a fall. My] fruit is better than fine gold, and 
my revenues, than choice silver,'' Truth and righteousness, not worldly 
wealth, endure j or ever. 

John is a name, [see Diagram I, p 226,] particular, masculine, 
of the third person, in the singular form, in the subjective case, 
direct, having the asserter has^ referring to, and depending on it; 
according to Rule I, part 1. 

Has is an asserter, [see Diagram III, p 228,] transitive, in the 
declarative mode, in the present tense, irregular, in the singular 
form, referring to, and depending on, the name John^ with which 
it agrees in its subjective termination ; according to Rule II, parti. 

More is an adname, [see Diagram IV, p 229,] specifying, in 

*a After a few examples, the entire sentences will not be parsed in the 
book for the pupil ; those parts only being parsed, (after theiirst few,) which 
tend to illustrate \he particular rule with which the Lesson corresponds in 
number. 

h As the learner is supposed to have become familiar, by this time, with 
the definitions of the parts of speech and their subdivisions, the definitions 
are not given here with the distinctions. 

t Wisdom's. 



260 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

the comparative form, (declined, simp, some, comp. more, super. 
most,) itbelonffsto, and depends on, the name ajyp/es; according to 
Rule XII, part 1. 

Apples is a name, [see Diagram I, p 226,] general, neuter, of 
the third person, in the plural form, in the objective case, di- 
rect, depending on the transitive asserter has ; according to Rule 
VII, part 1. 

Than is a connective, [see Diagram VII, p 231,] modifying, 
(expressing the ideas of comparison, and inequality or dispropor- 
tion,) joining the name Henry to the foregoing part of the com- 
plex sentence. 

fTewr^isaname, [see Diagram I, p 226,] particular, masculine, of 
the third person, in the singular form, in the subjective cdise, indi- 
rect, from its relation to the asserter has, before it ; according to 
Rule I, part 2. 

Pride is a name, [see Diagram I, p 226,] general, (used here 
to represent the idea of a proud person,) neuter, (used in reference 
to male and female, as though a common name,) of the third per- 
son, in the singular form, (it is a defective name, not having the 
plural form,) in the subjective case, direct, from its relation to the 
asserter goeth; according to Rule I, part 1. 

Goeth is an asserter, [see Diagram III, p 228,] intransitive, 
in the declarative mode, in the present tense, irregular, in the sin- 
gular form, (grave style,) referring to, depending on, and agreeing 
with, the iidime pride ; according to Rule II, part 1. 

Before is a relative, [see Diagram VI, p 231,] showing the re- 
lation of the fact of pride's (or the proud person's) going, and the 
state or condition, (mentioned by the name destruction,) which 
pride precedes. 

Destruction is a name, (see the diagram,) general, neuter, of 
the third person, in the singular form, (it is defective,) in the ob- 
jective case, direct, from its connection with, and dependence on, 
the relative before ; according to Rule XIV, part I. 

And is a connective, [see diagram VII, p 231,] simple, joining 
the combination of words coming after it, (in the sentence given 
for parsing,) to the sentence standing before it.* 

*The whole sentence, considered in its various parts, might stand in diaj- 
gram thus : 

Pride J goeth C before destruction : 
a haughty spirit ) ( before a fall 



in Parsing] syntax. 261 

A is an adname, [see Diagram IV, p 229,] specifying, indefi- 
nite, belonging to, and depending on, the name spirit; according to 
Rule XII, part 1. 

Haughty is an adname, qualifying, (describing the spirit,) in the 
simple ibrm, belonging to, and depending on, the i\dime spirit ; ac- 
cording to Rule XII, part 1. 

Spirit is a name, [see the diagram,] general, neuter,^ of the 
third person, in the singular form, in the subjective case, indirect^ 
from its relation to the asserter ^oei^; (which depends on the name 
pride,) according to Rule I, part 2, 

(^The words before ^ndfall are parsed exactly like the words 
before and destruction, just parsed — and the word 

A is an adname, parsed in relation to fall, exactly like the fore- 
going adname a, in reference to the name spirit. 

My is a substitute, [see Diagram II, p 227,] simple, common, 
(applied, here, to denote a neutral object, wisdom, represented by 
the figure of personification, as a female,) of the first person, in 
the singular form, and possessive case, direct, preceding, and de- 
pending on, the mme fruit ; according to Rule III. 

Fruit is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the 
singular form, in the subjective case, direct, from its relation to 
the asserter is ; according to Rule I, part 1. 

Is is an asserter, intransitive, in the declarative mode, in the 
present tense, irregular, in the singular form, depending on, and 
agreeing with, the name fruit ; according to Rule II, part 1. 

Better than is an adname connective phrase, expressing quali- 
ty, and connecting the last two words with the first three — yet,, 

Better, [parsed individually,] is an adnanje, qualifying, (descri- 
bing the fruit, comparatively considered, with gold,) in the com- 
parative form, it refers to the fruit, and depends on the name 
fruit; according to Rule XII, part 1. 

Tlian, [parsed individually,] is a connective, [see Diagram VII, 
p 231,] modifying, by expressing the idea of inequality or dispro- 
portion, joining the last two words to the first three — as just men- 
tioned of better than. 

Fine is an adname, qualifying, (describing the gold mentioned,) 
in the simple form, referring to the metal, the gold, and belonging 
to, and depending on, the name gold; according to Rule XII, pt. 1. 

fThe word spint is used in the sense of disposition, or temper of mind^ 
to represent, like|jri(ie,(before it,) d.person, male or female, of such a temper,. 



262 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

Gold is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the 
singular form, (it is defective,) in the subjective case widirect, 
from its relation to the asserter isy which depends on the name 
fruit ; according to Rule I, part 2.* 

And is a connective, [see Diagram VII, p 231,] simple, join- 
ing the two combinations expressing the two facts mentioned. 

My is parsed, in relation to the name revenues, just like the for- 
mer my, in reference to the name fruit. 

Revenues is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the 
plural form, in the subjective case i7idirect, from its relation to the 
asserter is, (the asserter being in the singular form, agreeing with 
the name fruit;) according to Rule I, part 2. See note b, p 236. 

Than, (referring to the word letter, already used, and being 
parsed alone, J is a connective, modifying, joining the name silver 
with its adname choice, to the name revenues, both names point- 
ing back to what has been remarked in comparing things. 

Choice is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, referring 
to the metal, and describing that, and depending on the name sil- 
ver, denoting the metal ; according to Rule XII, part 1. 

Silver is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the sin- 
gular form, (it is defective,) in the subjective cdise, indirect, from 
its relation to the asserter is, before given ; according to Rule I, 
part 2.| 

*The sentence might stand in diagram thus : 

My fruit ^ is .^better 

fine gold. 3 

fThe name silver is joined with its associate word revenues, and by the 
connective and, to the foregoing part of the whole sentence, which might 
.stand thus : 

My FRUIT ) c^ g ( -#^than fine gold; 

my revenues ) <^ g ( '=#i|}than choice silver — 
the first name fruit being in the subjective case, direct, and determining 
the form of the asserter is, and the other three names each in the subjective 
case indirect from its relation to the asserter which depends on the name 
fruit: and the adname Z)e</er belonging to, and depending on, the name 
fruit, but referring to, yet not depending on, the name revenues — while, at 
the same time this word better shows its qualifying influence in such a man- 
ner that both the modifying connectives than — than refer to it. [The lan- 
guage has few principles of construction more complex than this, which, 
notwithstanding the great complexity of the construction, is most beauti- 
fully clear, and very strong in expression.] 



in Parsing} syntax. 263 

Truth ^ 

I \ are both names, general, neuter, of the third 

Righteousness ) 
person, and individually in the singular form, though, Msedjoint- 
ly^ in their reference to the asserter endure, in the plural sense ; 
in the subjective case, direct, written according to Rule I, part 1. 
The word and is a simple connective, joining the two names. 

Not is a connective, modifying, joining the name wealth to the 
direct subjective words before it, and denying of the sense of the 
word thus joined, what is affirmed of the two moral principles be- 
fore mentioned. 

Worldly is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, (defective, 
as used in this sense,) referring to the wealth or riches, and be- 
longing to, and depending on, the name wealth : Rule XII, pt. 1. 

Wealth is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the 
singular form, (it is defective,) in the subjective case, indirect, from 
its relation to the asserter endure, which depends on the twosub- 
jectives before mentioned :* Rule I, part 2. 

Endure is an asserter, intransitive, (as here used, in the sense 
of continue, exist, or remain,) in the declarative mode, present 
tense, regular, in the plural form, depending on, and agreeing 
with, the names truth and righteousness, unitedly considered ; ac- 
cording to Rule II, part 1. 

Forever is a modifier, [see Diagram V, p 230,] of time, indef- 
inite, and perpetual, qualifying the fact or event, the enduring of 
truth and 7"i{/^^eoMswess, qualifying the sentence describing the fact ; 
according to Rule XIII, part 1. 

Lesson II. 

(Illustration of Parts 1, 2 and 3, of Rule II.) 
*Iam the Lord thy God who has brought thee out of the land of Egypt , 
out of the house of bondage.^ ' My son; keep thy father^ s command- 
ments, and forsakenot the law of thy mother.^ * Remember the Sabbath 
day, to keep it holy.' 

lis a substitute, [see Diagram II, p 227,] simple, (standing 
merely as a substitute for the name of the speaker,) common, (ap- 
plied, here to represent the Deity,) of the first person, in the sin- 
gular form, in the subjective case, direct, from its relation to the 
asserter am, according to Rule I, part 1. 

*The sentence, together, might stand thus : 

Truth and righteousness, j^ endure forever. 

worldly wealth, j 



264 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

Am is an asserter, [see Diagram III, p 228,] intransitive, in 
the declarative mode, in the present tense, irregular, in the form 
peculiar to the substitute /, and its representative who, [see present 
tense, letter d, p 130, and note b, p 235, J it refers to, depends on, 
and agrees wiih, the substitute 7, according to Rule 11, part 1. 

The is an adname, [see Diagram IV, p 229,] specifying, defi- 
nite, belonging to, and depending on, the name Lord, according to 
Rule XII, part 1. 

Lord is a name, [see the diagram,] general, (used here im par- 
ticular sense, as the name of the Deity,) masculine, (applied here 
to the Deity,) [see note *, below,] of the third person, in the sin- 
gular form, in the subjective case, indirect, from its relation to the 
asserter am, after which it occurs, according to Rule V, part 1. 

Thy is a substitute, [see Diagram II, p 227,] simple, stand- 
ing merely as a representative of the name of the individual, (the 
nation, as the 07ie,) addressed, common, (applied here to represent 
the nation,) of the second person, in the singular form, in the pos- 
sessive case, direct, preceding, and depending on, the name God, 
according to Rule III. 

God is a name, general, (applied herein 2i particular sense, as 
a name of the Deity,) neuter, (as a ^enem/ name, *a) of the third 
person, in the singular form, in the subjective case, indirect, from 
its relation to the name Lord, being given in addition to the name 
Lord, for explanation, according to Rule IV, part 1, or part 3 : 
(the name God also relating, through the name Lord, to the as- 
serter am; according to Rule V, pajrt 1.) 

Who, is a substitute, [see the diagram,] connective, used for the 
names Z/orrf and God denoim^ one, the same being; the word 
who acting as a substitute for names of the third person ; it is u- 
sed in the singular sense, in the subjective case, direct, having 

*a The name God, in a general sense, means only an idol, or an object 
on which the first affection of our hearts and our supreme regard are pla- 
ced: although, when used to denote the Almighty, it is, in sense, a partic- 
ular name. 

b In parsing any name of the Deity, the term masculine, feminine or 
neuter, needs not be applied, or even thought of: for, although we may re- 
gard the Deity as strictly neutral as any substance or thing which he has 
made ; as much so as life, or power, love, tvisdom, or goodness, he being 
but the grand concentration and combination of all these glorious attributes; 
and although the term he, as a substitute, should be used when we speak of 
Deity, lest, to our minds, the dignity of his being should, through the weak- 
ness of human conception, be lost, by the use of the neuter substitute ; yet, 
as bis relation to the distinctions of sex, he has never seen fit to reveal, we, 
as Grammarians, or men, have no concern with that property or distinction. 
[For the rest of J^otCy see next page.} 



in Parsing] syntax. 26B 

the asserter has brought depending on it ; according to Rule I, 
part 1. 

Has brought is an asserter, [see the diagram,] has being the 
auxiliary and brought the principal, transitive, in the declarative 
mode, in the prior-present tense, irregular, in the singular form, 
referring to, and depending on, the subjective word who, with which 
it agrees ; according to Rule II, part 1. 

Thee is a substitute, [see the diagram,] simple, [see the par- 
sing of the foreg )ing word thy,] common, applied here to repre- 
sent the nation, Israel, in the singular form, in the objective case, 
depending on the transitive asserter has brought; according to 
Rule Vlf, part 1. 

[The part of the sentence *' out of the land of Egypt," com- 
prises two appendant phrases : out of the land, being one, and of 
Egypt, the other. See note d, p 223.] 

Out of, (parsed together, as it must be, here,) is a relative^ 
[see Diagram VI, p 231,] showing the relation of the fact of the 
Almighty's bringing the nation, and the land, or territory, or dis- 
trict of country out of which he brought the nation. 

The is an adname, [see the diagram,] specifying, definite, be- 
longing to, and depending on, the name land ; according to Rule 
XII, part 1. 

Land is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the 
singular form, in the objective case, direct, depending on the rel- 
ative out of; according to Rule XIV, part 1. 

Of Egypt is an appendant phrase : the word of showing the 
relation of the territory to the name Egypt, which pertains or 
belongs to the territory. 

Egypt is a nam.e, particular, neuter, of the third person, in the 
singular form, in the objective case, direct, depending on the rel- 
ative of ; according to Rule XIV, part 1.* 

c In parsing lord, king, and other similar terms, we may call them mas- 
culine names, because generally applied to males ; yet, when applied as the 
names of God, we need not apply the terms distinctive of sex. 

*{KI^Tlie phrase out of the house of bondage, is parsed in the distinctions 
and relations of the individual words, just like the phrase out of the land of 
Egypt, with the exception that the name bondage is general, not particU' 
lar like the name Egypt. The two phrases might stand in diagram, thus, 

I have brought thee \ ""[% f '«"<^ ^ faVP', 
° I out oj trie house of bondage. 

The lower phrase, the student should know, (as he here may see,) isgiy* 
23 



266 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

My is a substitute, simple, common, (applied here to represent 
a male person — Solomon, the writer,) of the first person, in the 
singular form and possessive case, direct, preceding, and depen- 
ding on, the name son ; according to Rule III. 

Son is a name, general, masculine, of the second person, in the 
singular form, and in the subjective case, direct, from its relation 
to keep ; according to Rule 1, part 1. 

Keep^ (used in the sense of obey,) is an asserter, transitive, in 
the commanding mode and present tense, irregular, referring to, 
and depending on, the name son; according to Rule II, part 3. 

Thy is a substitute, simple, common, (applied hereto represent 
a male person, the son,) of the second person, in the singular form 
and possessive case, direct, preceding, and depending on, the name 
father^ s ; according to Rule HI. 

Father^s is a name, general, masculine, of the third person, in 
the singular form, and possessive case, direct, preceding, and de- 
pending on, the name commandments, according to Rule III. 

Commandments is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, 
in the plural form, in the objective case, direct, denoting the ob- 
jects to which the fact of keeping, (obeying,) is to be extended. 
It depends on keep : Rule VII, part l.| 

And is a connective, [see Diagram VII, p 231,] simple, join- 
ing the two asserters keep and forsake, with their respective ac- 
companying words. 

Forsake is an asserter, transitive, in the commanding mode, 
present tense, irregular, connected by and with the asserter keep ; 
according to Rule XV, part 2,* and depending on the name son^ 

en to explain what is expressed by the former. [See Rule IV, part 3.] 
As the ancients, (so do the moderns,) employed their prisoners in hard la- 
bor ; as a prison was sometimes called a house of bondage; and as the Is- 
raelites were slaves in Egypt, the figure seems very appropriate. 

[The Philistines took Samson, and put out his eyes, and brought him down 
to Gaza, and bound him with fetters of brass ; and he did grind in the pris- 
on house — Judges xvi, 21.] 

*The sentence, considered in its different parts or numbers, might stand 
thus: 

C keep thy father's commandments, 
My son ; < | 

(forsake not the law of thy mother. 

The two phrases, in the brace, having the same relation to the name son, 
(as the basis or foundation of the remark or sentence,) according to Rule 
XV, part 2. t See XXIII, p 32, and XXV, p 33. 



in Parsing] syntax. 267 

to denote the particular subject of the command ; according to Rule 
II, part 3. 

Not is a modifier, [see diagram V, p 230,] negative, used to 
express, negatively^ what would otherwise be expressed affirma- 
tively, and throwing its modifying influence over the whole of this 
part of the command ; affecting, chiefly, the sense of the asser- 
ter forsake, as used, here, in sense, in inseparable connection with 
the words, the law of thy mother ; according to Rule XIII, part 1. 

The is an adname, specifying, definite, belonging to, and depend- 
ing on, the name law ; according to Rule XII, part 1. 

Law is a name, general, neuter, of the third person, in the sin- 
gular form, in the objective case, direct, depending on the transi- 
tive asserter forsake ; according to Rule VII, part 1. 

0/" is a relative, [see Diagram VI, p 231,] showing the rela- 
tion of the law to the person, the mother as the giver of it, the 
person from whom it emanates, to whom it pertains or belongs. 

Thy is a substitute, simple, common, still applied as a substitute 
for the masculine name son, of the second person, in the singular 
form, and in the possessive case, direct, preceding, and depending 
on, the name mother ; according to Rule III. 

Mother is a name, general, feminine, of the third person, in the 
singular form, and objective case, direct, denoting the object to 
which the law is represented as being related, or represented as 
pertaining, and depending on the relative of ; according to Rule 
XIV, part 2. 

Remember is an asserter, transitive, in the commanding mode 
absolute, present tense, used according to Rule II, part 3. See 
note c, p 239. 

The is an adname, specifying, definite, referring and belonging 
to, and depending on, the name c/a?/ ; according to Rule XII, 
part 1. 

Sabbath, as here used, is an adname, specifying, definite, par- 
ticularizing one day of the whole seven, belonging to, and depend- 
ing on, the name day ; according to Rule XII, part 1. 

Day is a name, general, (all the particular sense there is con- 
nected with it is expressed by the adname sabbath,) neuter, of 
the third person, in the singular form, in the objectrve case, direct, 
depending on the transitive asserter remember ; according to Rule 
VII, part 1. 

To keep is an asserter, transitive, in the dependent mode abso- 



3KW SYNTAX. IBxercises 

lute, indefinite tense, used according to Rule 11, part 3. See note 
c, p 239. 

Itf is a substitute for the name day, as defined by the adname 
sabbath, simple, neuter, of the third person, in the singular form,. 
in the objective case, direct, depending on the transitive asserter 
to keep ; according to Rule VII, part 1. 

^Holy is an adname, modifying, it qualifies the fact or event 
of the keeping, or observing with due religious solemnity, the day 
mentioned, so far acting the part of a modifier ; and also qualifies 
the day itself, by showing its character, as sacred, as it was to be 
observed. (^Like any other adname, it belongs to, and depends 
on, the substitute it, as a representative of the name day ; accor- 
ding to Rule XII, part I. 

Lesson III. 

(Illustration of Rule III.) 
My brother-in-law's house was burned. The Duke of Orleans* corona- 
tion. Utley & Upham's store is a good place for trade. Peter's wife's moth- 
er was sick. Peace of mind is Virtue's reward for her followers. 
** give me tears for others' woes, 
But firmness midst my own.*' 
It was God's own grace that saved my soul from sinking in despair. 

My is a substitute, simple, common, of the first person, in the 
singular form, in the possessive case, direct, preceding, and depend-* 
ing on, the name brother-in-law'' s ; according to Rule III. 

Brother-in-law'' s is a name, general, masculine, of the third per- 
son, in the singular form, in the possessive case, direct, preceding, 
and depending on, the name house; according to Rule III.* 

The is an adname, specifying, definite, belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the name Duke of Orlearis, as though the three 
words were one word, as they are but one name — (title ;) accord- 
ing to Rule XII, part 1. 

Duke of Orleans^ is a name, particular, in sense, masculine, of 
the third person, in the singular form, [the plural would be duke* 
of Orleans, see 110, p 57,] in the possessive case, direct, prece- 
ding, and dependmg on, the name coronation ; according to Rule 

Utley <S)' Uphamh, parsed together, is a name, of a commercial 

*The name brother-in-law, it is seen, is to be parsed together as one 
word ; as all the three parts constitute but one name. The fact of its hay- 
ing, or not having, hyphens (-) to unite the parts, makes B,o difference ija 
1;he sense or the relation of the word to others.. 



m Parsitig] syntax. 269 

company, particular, given to particularize this one company or 
firm, neuter, denoting a firm or company, which, as a ^rm or com- 
pany, is neither a male nor a female creature, though each of the 
persons composing the company is a??ta/e creature, and each name, 
considered separately, would be regarded as masculine ; singular, 
in for7n, when meaning the company or firm, merely, but plural 
in sense, when meaning the j9erso7is composing the company, they 
being considered individuully, yet connectedly : in the possessive 
case, direct, (the two names being combined in this, as owe name ;) 
preceding, and depending on, the name store ; according to Rule 
III.* 

Peter'^s is a name, particular, (parsed in every other respect 
like the name brother -in-law'' s,) in the possessive case, direct, 
from its connection with the name wife^s ; according to Rule 111. 

Wife^s is a name, general, feminine, (parsed in other respects 
like the name Peter''s,) in the possessive case, direct, in its con- 
nection with the name mother ; according to Rule III. 

Virtue's is a name, general, (used here, by the figure of per- 
sonification, as particular,) neuter, (used here, by the same figure 
of speech, as feminine,) of the third person, in the singular form, 
and possessive case, direct, in its relation to the name reward ; ac- 
cording to Rule III. 

Her is a substitute, simple, feminine, of the third person, in the 
singular form, and possessive case, direct, written, with the name 
followers, according to Rule III. 

Others'* is a substitute, adname, common, [see note |, p 227,] 
of the third person, in the plural form, in the possessive case, di- 
rect, from its relation to the name woes ; according to Rule III. 

My own is a substitute combination — own being added to my to 
constitute the emphatic two-fold case, (the sense being that of 
mine,) common, as it relates to the speaker or writer, but neuter, 
as it relates to the woes ; of the first person, in its meaning the 
speaker or writer, but third, in its acting as a substitute for the 
name woes ; in the singular form, as it respects the speaker or wri- 
ter, but plural in sense, as it respects the woes ; in the two-fold 

*The name of the firm, Utley Sf Upham, is made in the possessive form, 
just as any other combination of letters constituting a single name would 
be ; as, Utley ^ 

& > *s— the apostrophe (') and the apostrophic s belonging 
Upham ) 

to hoth^ alike and unitedly considered, but to neither, separately or alone. 
23* 



270 SYNTAX. (Hxirdses 

case, the possessive and objective ; and froni its objective relatiott 
depending on the relative hnidst ;* according to Rule XIV, pt. I. 

God's own is a name combination, particular (in sense, see note' 
*, p 264,) of the third person, in the singular form, and possessive 
case, direct, written with the name grace, according to Rule IILf 

My is parsed, in relation to the name soul, just like the first 
word my, m this lesson, in its relation to the name brother-in-law^s, 
and according to the same rule. 

Lesson IV.J 

(Illustfation of Parts 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, of Rule IV.) 

Herod, the king, had heard of these things. I took his (Henry's) hymti 
book, and left mine. I visited my three cousins, Juha, Helen and Robert. 
** For my servant David's sake, I will not do tiiis thing." Paul, the apos- 
tle's letter to the Romans. George : at whose store did you purchase that 
book. At Mr. Henry's. 1 spoke of your injuring yourself, overtasking 
your strength. " Johnson was resolved, and that was a precursor to his suc- 
cess." I judged from what I saw, the horses, and the broken carriage, that 
some one had been injured. 

King is a name, [Pupil ; tell what kind, &c. &c.] in the sub- 
jective case, indirect, from its relation to the subjective word Her- 
od : Rule IV, part 1. 

Henryh is a name, in the possessive case, indirect, from its re- 
lation to the direct possessive word his, which Henry's is used to 
explain: Rule IV, part 1. 

Julia^ Helen and Robert, are names, considered individually, 
and together, in the objective case, indirect, from their rela- 
tion to their direct objective word cousins , which these are used 
to explain : Rule IV, part 1. 

Servant is a name, in the possessive case, indirect, (without the 
possessive sign,) from its relation to the direct possessive word 
jDamrf's, in reference to which this is used to explain : (to show 
the character or capacity in which the man is regarded — ichat he 
is:) Rule IV, part 2. 

*This word, 'midst, the contraction of a/nzc?s<, is frequently used without 
the sign of contraction, (') thus: ' When midst the ruin round, I stood.' — 
Other relatives are sometimes contracted in the same manner, withorioith- 
out the sign of contraction. 

fThe word own, as here used, is joined in combination with the name 
God's only to make the whole combination emphatic. 

^Generally, hereafter, only the particular relations of words, and the rules 
describing those relations, will be found given here. The learner should 
mention all the traits which he finds are omitted, and parse all the other 
words of the sentences. 



in Parsingi STNf ax. 2TI 

Paul is a name, in the possessive case, indirect, (without the 
possessive sign,) fiom its relation to the direct possessive word a- 
postle''s, in reference to which this is used to explain ; (to show 
who the apostle is ;) Rule IV, part 2. 

At Mr. Henry^s is a phrase used to explain in reference to the 
phrase at whose store — while 

Mr. Hemy'^Si a name, is in the two-fold case, possessive and 
objective, corresponding with the simple possessive whose, and the 
simple objective store, to which Mr. Henry'^s points back, or re- 
fers ; the name Mr. Henryh depending on its relative, the last 
at, (Rule XIV, part 1,) from its being in the objective case, di- 
rect; just as the name store depends on the first relative at, from 
its being in the objective case, direct, in its relation to that word ; 
according to Rule XIV, part 1. 

Overtasking your strength, as a substitute phrase, is in the ob- 
jective casej indirect, from its relation to the phrase which this is 
used to explain : Rule IV, part 3 ; the phrase injuring yourself^ 
being in the objective case, direct, from its relation to the relative 
of, [Rule XIV, part 1]— yet 

Overtasking, if parsed alone, must be regarded as an assertive 
name, in the objective case, direct, from its relation to the relative 
of: [I spoke of overtasking :'^'\ Rule XIV, part 1 — and 

Your is a substitute, in the possessive case, direct, from its re- 
lation to the name strength : Rule III — and 

Strength is a name, in the objective case, direct, depending on 
the assertive name overtasking, in its assertive capacity ; Rule 
VII, part 1 — just as. 

Yourself, a substitute, is in the objective case, direct, depend- 
ing on the assertive name injuring, in its assertive capacity ; ac- 
cording to Rule VII, part 1. [See note *, p 51.] 

That, is an adname substitute, meaning the same event that is 
expressed by the foregoing sentence, Jolmson was resolved; ac- 
cording to Rule IV, part 4 — and being in the subjective case, di- 
rect, from its relation to was, according to Rule 1, part 1. 

Horses and carriages are names, used to explain the whole 
phrase, what I saw ; this phrase being in the objective case, di- 
rect, from its relation to from ; (as, from what I saw;) ac- 
cording to Rule XIV, part 1 : and the names horses and carria- 

* Overtasking, taken alone, may not be parsed according to Rule IV pt Ij 
for this word, alone, is not given to explain the word injuring, merely; al- 
though the whole phrase is given to explain the phrase injuring yourself. 



272 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

ges in the objective case, indirect, from their relation to the direct 
objective phrase, what I saw ; according to Rule IV, part b*a 

Lesson V, 

(Illustration of Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4, of Rule V.) 
Harriet is my friend. That portrait is Clinton's. That officer is Gener- 
al Dix. He was appointed secretary. Helen was approved as a teacher. 
George is just the man that I thought he was. Richard is just what I told 
him he was. Samuel's becoming a clergyman will affect his habits of study. 
Robert was wretched in being made the slave of his own irritability. 

Friend is a name, in the subjective case, indirect, being given 
to describe the direct subject, the lady, (Harriet,) and written af- 
ter the intransitive asserter is ; according to Rule V, part 1. 

Clinton's is a name, in the two-fold case, the possessive, and 
the subjective, indirect, being used to describe the direct subject, 
the picture or portrait ; and in its subjective relation written after 
the intransitive assester is; according to Rule V, part 1. 

General Dix, [parsed together, like Mr. Dix,'] is a name, in 
the subjective case, indirect, being used to particularize the direct 
subject of remark, the man, and written after the intransitive as- 
serter ; according to Rule V, part 1. 

Secretary is a name, in the subjective case, indirect, used to de- 
scribe the direct subject of remark, the man, General Dix, deno- 
ted by the substitute he, and written after the receptive asserter 
was appointed; according to Rule V, part 1. 

Teacher is a name, in the subjective case, indirect, being used 
to describe the direct subject of remark, the lady, (Helen,) and 
written after the receptive asserter was approved : Rule V, part 1. 

*a The phrase ivhat I saw, as a whole, is in the simple objective case, 
direct, from its relation to the relative from; but the word what, parsed 
individually as a connective substitute, is in the two-fold case; the objective, 
direct, from its relation to the relative from, and the objective, direct, from 
its relation to the transitive asserter saw : yet, 

b {JCf^The names horses and carriage, are given in addition to, and ex- 
planatory of, not the word what, merely, but the whole phrase, what I 
saw. These names, like the whole phrase diVe, respectively, in the simple 
objective case — (the phrase being in this case direct, and the names, wdi- 
rect,) while the word what, as a connective substitute, is in the two-fold 
objective case, the simple objective, direct, after frojn, and the simple ob- 
jective, direct, before saw. If these names were given to explain the word 
what, merely, they, like what, would be in the twofold case. It might 
stand in diagram thus : 

I judged from J ^'httisTand broken carriage, \ ""^^t ^o™* 
one had been injured. [See note *a, p 242.] 



in Parsifig] syntax. 273 

That^ is a connective substitute, used to represent a word of 
the third person, the name man, in the subjective case, indirect, 
and written, with the direct subjective word he, a simple substi- 
tute, before the intransitive asserter was : Rule V, part 2. 

What, is a connective substitute, in the two-fold case : the in- 
direct subjective after is, and referring to the name Richard, ac- 
cording to Rule V, part 1 — and the indirect subjective, written, 
with the direct subjective he, before the intransitive asserter was : 
Rule V, part 2. 

Clergyman is a name, in the subjective case, indirect, used to 
describe the person denoted by the prior possessive word Samu- 
eVs and written after the assertive name becoming, (in its assert- 
ive capacity ;) according to Rule V, part 3. 

Slave is a name, in the subjective case, indirect, used to de- 
scribe the person denoted by the prior subjective word Robert, 
and written after the assertive name being made: Rule V, part 4. 

Lesson VI. 

(Illustration of Rule VI.) 
Ah me ! **Ahhim! the first great martyr in this great cause." "O 
Death ! the aged Christian's friend." William: has your brother return- 
ed ? To confess the truth, I did err in my decision. 

Me is a substitute for the name of the speaker or writer, in the 
independent case, and written according to Rule VL* 

Him is a substitute for the name of a man before mentioned, in 
the independent case, direct, and written according to Rule VI. "f 

Death is a name, in the independent case, direct, written, like 
the words me and him, above, according to Rule VI — [these names 
all standing distinct or separate from any sentence describing an 
event J] 

William is a name, in the independent case, direct, though re- 
ferred to by the sentence, by the substitute your, in the sentence^ 
the name William being used according to Rule VI. 

*See, in the declension of simple substitutes, 146, p 76, the second me, 
in the independent form. Ah me! parsed together, is an exclamatory phrase. 

jMartyr, as used in the sentence, is in the independent case, indirect, 
being used to explain, or for explanation, by showing the character of the 
person denoted by the direct independent word him; according to Rule 
IV, part 1. [See note *a,p 241.] 

JThe name friend is parsed, in its relation to Death, just like the name- 
martyr, in its relation to Am— being in the independent case, indirect, and 
used according to Rule lY, part 1. 



2T4 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

To confess the truths as a substitute phrase, is in the independ- 
ent case, direct, though referring, of itself, to the sentence follow- 
ing it ; it IS written according to the same Rule, VI — and, the 
name 

Truth is in the objective case, direct, depending on the assert- 
ive name to confess^ (in its assertive capacity ;) according to 
Rule VII. 

Lesson VII. 

(Illustration of Parts 1 and 2, Rule VII.) 
Seth ate an apple. Julia read a book. William owns a house. I love 
my brothers and sisters. " Children ; obey your parents." I have more 
fruit than I can sell. George met as many friends as he could address per- 
sonally. " They bought, they sold, they planted and built." I requested. 
George to sing any thing for my amusement. 1 insisted that Henry should 
eat something, as he was becoming faint. 

Apple is a name, in the objective case, direct, dependingon the 
transitive asserter ate : Rule VII, part 1. 

Book is a name, in the objective case, direct, depending on the 
transitive asserter read: Rule VII, part 1. 

House is a name, in the objective case, direct, depending on 
the asserter owns: Rule VII, part 1. 

Brothers and sisters are both names, each being in the object- 
ive case, direct, depending on the asserter love : Rule VII, part 1 : 
the name sister* being joined, by a/ic?, to 6ro/^e7*5: RuleXV,pt. 1. 

Parents is a name, in the objective case, direct, depending on 
obey: Rule VII, part 1. 

Fruit is a name, in the two-fold objective case, depending on 
hat^e : Rule VII, part 1 — and referring to can sell : while this 
asserter 

Can sell is a transitive asserter used in a particular sense, hav- 
ing the name fruit referring to it : Rule VII, part 1. 

Friends is a name, in the two-fold objective case, the object- 
ive, direct, depending on met : Rule VII, part 1 — and the object- 
ive, direct, referring to the asserter could address. 

Could address is a transitive asserter, used in a particular sense ; 
according to Rule VII, part 1 : the asserter having no objective 
depending on it ; but the objective word friends referring to it. 

Bought, sold, planted, and built, are transitive asserters, (as 
no one could do either of these acts without doing it to some- 
thing,) each being used in a general sense, without an objective 
word : Rule VII, part 2. 



in Parsing] syntax. 270 

George is a name, in the two-fold objective case, the ohjective 
case, direct, after requested, on which it depends : Rule VJI, part 
1 — and in the subjective, direct, from its relation to the asserter 
to sing ; according to Rule I, part 1. 

To sing is a transitive asserter, used in a general sense, with 
the indefinite, direct objective word thing depending on it ; ac- 
cording to Rule VII, part 2. 

Should eat is a transitive asserter, used in a general sense, 
with the objective word something; according to Rule VII, 
part 2. 

Lesson VIII, 

(Illustration of Rule VIII.) 
I travelled a long journey to visit my aged parents. George struck a 
heavy blow with his hatchet, and killed the wolf on the spot. 

Travelled is an asserter, intransitive, in its general meaning, 
but used transitively in its particular reference to the name jour- 
Tiey ;* according to Rule VIII: in the declarative mode, in the in- 
definite past tense, regular, in the common form, depending on 
the substitute /; according to Rule II, part 1. 

Journey is a name, in the objective case, direct, depending on 
the asserter travelled) (here used transitively ;) according to Rule 
VII, part 1. 

Struck is an asserter, intransitive, when meaning merely the 
motion of the hatchet as caused by me ; but used transitively in 
connection with the name blow, which represents the result of the 
hatchet's motion as the object ; according to Rule VIII. [Pu- 
pil ; tell the asserter's other traits, and give the rule for its depend- 
ing on, and agreeing with, the name George.'f 

Blow is a name, in the objective case, direct, depending on the 
asserter struck, used, here, in the transitive sense : Rule VII, 
part 1. 

Lesson IX. 

(Illustration of Rule IX.) 
Seth gave Julia a book. George sent Helen an umbrella. Samuel ow- 
ed Jacob some money ; but he has paid him a part of it. 

Julia is a name, in the objective case, direct, denoting the ob- 
ject that the fact of giving the book was extended to, and depends, 
with the name book, on the transitive asserter gave : Rule IX. 

*Used in the sense of made or accomplished. 

^Struckf oxstrikCi used in the sense of hit, (forcibly or gently,) is always 
transitive. 



276 SYNTAX. lExercisef 

Book is a name, in the objective case, direct, denoting the ob- 
ject which keiit' gave, and depending, with the name Julia, on the 
transitive asserter gave : Rule IX. 

Helen is a name, in the objective case, direct, denoting the ob- 
ject that the fact of sending the umbrella was extended to, and 
depending, with the name umbrella, on the asserter sent : Rule 
IX. 

Umbrella is a name, in the objective case, direct, denoting the 
object which George sent, and depending, with the name Helen, 
on the asserter sent : Rule IX. 

Jacob is a name, in the objective case, direct, denoting the ob- 
ject that the fact of owing the money was extended to, depend- 
ing, with the name money, on the asserter owed: Rule IX. 

Money is a name, in the objective case, direct, denoting the ob- 
ject to which the fact of owing is extended, and depending, with 
the name Jacob, on the asserter owed : Rule IX. 

Him is a substitute, in the direct objective case, denoting the ob- 
ject that the fact of paying the money was extended to, and de- 
pendmg, with the name part, on the asserter has paid : Rule 

Part is a name, the name of a division of something, in the di- 
rect objective case, denoting the object which Samuel paid, and de- 
pending, with the substitute him, on the asserter has paid : Rule 

IX. ] See note ja, b, c, d, e,f, p 247.] 

tiesson X. 

(Illustration of Parts 1 and 2, of Rule X. 
"William was forgiven the debt which he owed his brother. This book 
was handed me by my cousin. 

Debt is a name, in the direct objective case, from its denoting 
the object which is represented as pertaining to the subject of re- 
mark, (the man William :) Rule X, part 1. 

Me is a substitute, in the direct objective case, from its deno- 
ting the object to which the subject of remark, (the book,) is rep- 
resented as pertaining : Rule X, part 2* 

*The asserter, when used (as above,) according to parts 1 and 2, of Rule 

X, seems to retain a degree of its transitive meaning in reference to the ob- 
jective word, while it is fully receptive in its relation to the subjective. 
From this fact, the philologist might, without the charge of inconsistency, 
give a rule like this — that, a transitive asserter admitting two objectives, 
not joined b)' a connective, may be so used as to be receptive in relation to 
one objective word, and retain its transitive meaning in relation to the other. 



in Parsing] syntax. 277 

Lesson XI. 

(Illustration of Rule XI.) 
Harriet will not stay, but Eliza will. Joanna has not bought a ring, but 
Hannah has, a testament. Helen was not ofTended, but Robert was. 

Will is an auxiliar asserter, acting the part of the full asserter 
will stay ; according to Rule XI ; intransitive, in the declarative 
mode, in the indefinite-future tense, irregular, in the common 
form, depending on the direct subjective word Eliza : Rule II, 
part 1. 

Has is an auxiliar asserter, acting the part of the full asserter 
has bought ; according to Rule XI ; transitive, in its signification 
or meaning ; in the declarative mode, in the prior-present tense, ir- 
regular, in the singular form, depending on the subjective word 
Hannah : Rule II, part 1. 

Testament is a name, in the direct objective case, depending on 
has, used as a transitive asserter : Rule VJI, part 1. 

Was is an auxiliar asserter, acting the part of the full asseiter 
was offended; according to Rule Xl ; receptive, in the declara- 
tive mode, in the indefinite-past tense, irregular, in the singular 
fornn, depending on the subjective word Robert: Rule II, part 1. 

liesson XII, 

(Illustration of Parts 1, 2 and 3, of Rule XII.) 
Life is short. Truth is eternal. The ways of true Religion are pleasant 
to those who walk therein. Jane is very cheerful. Be prudent inallthings- 
The more diligent you are in study, the greater will be your proficiency. — 
James wrote the letter very plain. These books were given me by my 
mother. "What misery does the vicious man secretly endure!" How 
happy is the upright man I No person can escape from the presence and 
power of his Creator. " Here the throbbing heart lies still." 

Short is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, belonging 
to, and depending on, the name life : Rule XII, part 1. [Eter- 
nal is parsed, in relation to truth, like short, in relation to /«/e.] 

The is an adname, specifying, definite, belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the name ivays : Rule XII, part 1. [See note '[, 
p 169.] 

Pleasant is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, belong- 
ing to, and depending on, the name ways : Rule XIT, part 1. — 
[True is parsed in the same manner in relation to the name Re- 
ligion.'] 

Very is an adname, auxiliar, qualifying the principal cheerful, 
and, with that, belonging to, and depending on, the name Jane : 
Rule XII, part 2. 

24 



278 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

Cheerful is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, principal, 
depending on, the name Jane: Rule XII, part 1. 

Be prudent is an adname assertive phrase, used absolute ; ac- 
cording to Rule XII, part 3. [See note *, p 252.] 

The is an adname, second auxiliar, limiting the sense of the 
first auxiliar more, and through that, the principal diligent^ and be- 
longing, with these, to the substitute you : Rule XII, part 2. 

More is an adname, first auxiliar, qualifying the principal, dili- 
gent, and belonging, with the principal, to the substitute you : 
Rule XII, part 2. 

Diligent is an adname, qualifying, in the simple form, (yet as- 
sociated with the word more, to mark proportion,) principal, be- 
longing to, and depending on, the substitute you : Rule XII, pt. 1. 

The is an adname, first auxiliar, limiting the meaning of the 
principal greater, and, with that, belonging to, and depending on, 
the name proficiency : Rule XII, part 2. 

Greater is an adname, qualifying, in the comparative form, 
principal, belonging to, and depending on, the name proficiency : 
Rule XII, part 1. 

Plain is an adname, modifying, qualifying the fact of Sanies'^ 
writing, as well as the letter itself, when written. It belongs to, 
and depends on, the name letter: Rule XII, part 1. 

These is an adname, specifying, definite, belonging to, and de- 
pending on, the name hooks : Rule XII, part 1. 

What is an adname, exclamatory, belonging to, and depending 
on, the name misery : Rule XII, part 1. 

How is an adname, exclamatory, auxiliar to the qualifying ad- 
name happy, and with that, belonging to, and depending on, the 
name man : Rule XII, part 2. [See note *a, b, p 175.] 

Happy is an adname, qualifying, principal, belonging to, and 
depending on, the name man : Rule XII, part 1. 

No is an adname, negative, belonging to, and depending on, 
the iidime person : Rule XII, part 1. 

Throbbing is an adname, assertive, belonging to, and depend- 
ing on, the name heart : Rule XII, part 1. 

Lesson XIII. 

(Illustration of Parts 1 and 2, of Rule XIII.) 
Julia learns fast. Harriet studies very attentively. George is certainly 
an orator. Mary is not at home. Seth travelled south as far as Mexico, 
and returned as far as here. James died two years ago. Eliza learns more 



in Parsing"] syntax. 27Q 

than three times faster than Sannuel. The sooner you start for New Or- 
leans, the earlier you will arrive there. 

Fast is a modifier of manner, [see note §, p 230,] qualifying 
the sentence describing the fact of Jaliah learning : Rule XllI, 
part 1. 

Very is a modifier, auxiliar, qualifying the principal attentively ^ 
and through that, the meaning of the sentence describing the fact 
mentioned: Rule XIII, part 2. 

Attentively is a modifier, of manner, in the simple form, prin- 
cipal, qualifying the fact expressed by the sentence in which it oc- 
curs: Rule XllI, part 1. 

Certainly is a modifier, of affirmation, {^by way of emphasis,) 
referring to the words before it, to which it refers, while it throws 
its influence (emphasis) upon the w^ord orator : Rule XIII, part 
1. [See XLIV-V, p 37.] 

Not is a modifier, of negation, modifying the meaning of the 
sentence in which it occurs. It refers to the two words Mary is, 
but throws its modifying influence chiefly upon the two words at 
home : Rule XIII, part 1. [See XLVI, p 37.] 

South is a particular name used as a modifier, of tendency or 
direction, qualifying the fact of Seth's travelling : Rule XIII, 
part 1. 

As far as Mexico, taken together as one phrase, (not to be 
separated without destroying the sense,) is a modifier, of place, 
qualifying the fact of Seth's travelling, mentioned by the sentence 
in which it occurs : Rule XIII, part 1. 

[As far as here, is parsed, in reference to Seth's returning, 
just like the foregoing phrase, in reference to his travelling.] 

Two years ago, as a phrase, is a modifier, of time, past, quali- 
fying the fact of James'' dying : Rule XIII, part 1 — yet. 

Ago, (formerly agone,) is the principal, indicating, of itself, 
that past time is meant, and dependmg on two years to show how 
long ago : [or past :] while 

Two years, as a first auxiliar, qualifies ago, and through that, 
the meaning of the sentence. *a 

*a Ago, as a principal, (and it is always principal,) is never used with- 
out an auxiliar — so that the word ago should always be parsed, as first a- 
bove, in combination with the auxiliar, as one modifier; although the influ- 
ence of the individual parts may be mentioned, as they are above. 

b Some asserters in certain forms, may not be used as ^"indpa/^ without 
auxiliars ; as, been, [See 246, p 151.] 



2.80 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

More than is a modifier, second auxillar, qualifying the first aux- 
iliar three times, and through that, the principal /as/er, and through 
that, the meaning of the sentence in which it occurs: Rule XllI, 
part 2. 

Three times, is a modifier, first auxlliar, qualifying the principal 
faster, and through that, the meaning of the sentence in which 
it occurs : Rule XIII, part 2. 

[Faster is parsed in the same general manner as the other prin- 
cipal modifiers.] 

The is a modifier, first auxiliar, limiting the meaning of the 
principal sooner, and through that, the sense of the first part of 
the sentence : Rule XIII, part 2. 

[Sooner is parsed in the same general manner as other principal 
modifiers.] 

The is a modifier, first auxiliar, limiting the sense of the princi- 
pal earlier, and through that, the meaning of the first pait of the 
sentence in which it occurs : Rule XIII, part 2. 

[Earlier is parsed in the same general manner as other princi- 
pal modifiers.] 

There is a modifier, of place, qualifying the fact of the person's 
arriving: Rule XIII, part 1. 

Lesson XIV. 

(Illustration of Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4, of Rule XIV.) 
The book before me is the Bible. George walked almost through the 
river. The balloon ascended more than three miles above the village. — 
Henry is the scholar that I bought the slate for. Whose store did you trade 
at ? To whom did you give the paper ? Emilius has a new book to read 
in. I have more friends than I can correspond with. John Quincy Ad- 
ams — than whom, no man ever possessed more varied, extensive, and prac- 
tical knowledge. 

Before is a relative, showing the relation between the hook, 
mentioned, and myself, the person before whom the book is. 

Me is a substitute, in the direct objective case, depending on be- 
fore : Rule XIV, part 1. 

Almost is a relative, auxiliar, limiting the meaning of its prin- 
cipal through, and depending on the principal : Rule XIV, part 2. 

Through is a relative, principal, showing the relation of the 
fact of the person's walking, to the river, (the stream,) as the ob- 
ject to which the fact is related. 

River is a name, in the direct objective case, depending on the 
lehtivQ through : Rule XIV, part 1. 



in JParsing] Syntax. 2S1 

More than is a relative, second auxiliar, qualifying the first aux- 
iliar two miles, and through that, the principal above^ on which 
more than depends : Rule XiV, part 2. 

Two miles is an adname, (two,) and' a name, {miles,) used as a 
first auxiliar relative, qualifying the principal above, and depend- 
ing on the principal : Rule XIV, part 2. 

Above is a relative, principal, showing the relation of the fact 
of the ballooTi's ascending, to the village, as the object above 
which it ascended. 

Village is a name, in the direct objective case, depending on a- 
hove: Rule XIV, part 1. 

That is a connective substitute, in the direct objective case, de- 
pending on for : Rule XIV, part 1 — see, also, part 3.* 

For is a relative, showing the relation of the fact of my buying 
the slate, to the person denoted by the word that. 

Store is a name, in the direct objective case, depending on the 
relative at : Rule XIV, part 1 — see, also, part 3.* 

At is a relative, showing the relation of the fact of the ^ersow's 
trading, to the store, as the object or place at which the trading 
was done. 

To shows the relation of the fact o( the person'^s giving the pa- 
per, to the person to whom it was given. 

Whom is an interrogative substitute, in the direct objective case, 
depending on to: Rule XIV, part 1 — see, also, part 3.* 

Book is in the two-fold objective case, depending on the asser- 
ter has : Rule VII, part 1 — and referring to the relative in : Rule 
XIV, part 1. 

In is a relative, showing the relation of the fact of reading, to 
the book, as the object in which the person is to read. 

Friends, in reference to case, is parsed just like books, above, 
depending on the asserter have, and referring to the relative with. 

With shows the relations of the fact of corresponding, to a class 
of persons represented by the word friends. 

Than is a modifying relative, showing the relation which the 
person, denoted by whom, bears to the sentiment expressed by the 
other words. 

* Qcf=*Parts 3 and 4, of Rule XIV, are but a kind of sub-rules, or secon- 
dary rules, exhibiting the principle expressed by part 1 : yet, lest the pu- 
pil should overlook these matters which might seem to have the character 
of mere notes, they have been embodied as Rules. After one exercise on 
these parts, he may mention only part 1, in parsing words thus employed. 
24* 



282 SYPfTAX. {Exefcises 

Whom is a connective substitute, in the objective case, depend* 
ing on than: Rule XIV, part 1 — see, also, part 4.* 

Lesson XV. 

(Illustration of Parts 1 and 2, of Rule XV. ) 
I went with Sarah and Helen to the concert. "Time and tide wait for 
no man." George or I must go home. Neither Henry nor Seth can go to 
school to-day. Julia would rather associate with Emma than Mary. Ja- 
bez met Harriet, as well as Maria, at the party. Joseph, not William, is 
my brother. James presented Emilia as his cousin. William works and 
studies alternately. Helen is industrious and frugal. James writes rapid- 
ly, but elegantly. Amelia stood behind, yet near, her friend, when she 
heard this conversation. Maria : you must go. Why ? and Where ? 

Sarah is a name, in the objective case, direct, depending on 
the relative with: Rule XIV, part 1. 

And is a connective, simple, uniting the two words Sarah and 
Helen. 

Helen is a name, in the objective case, direct, joined by and, to 
the name Sarah : Rule XV, part 1 — and depending on the rela- 
tive with : Rule XIV, part 1. 

Time is a name, in the subjective case, direct, having the asser- 
ter wait depending on this name, jointly considered with the name 
tide : Rule I, part 1. 

And is a connective, simple, joining the name tide to the name 
timey these two relating alike to the asserter ivait. 

Tide is a name, in the subjective case, direct, connected hy and, 
"with the name time : Rule XV, part 1 ; and having the asserter 
wait depending on this name, jointly with the name time : Rule 
Ij part 1. 

Or is a connective, modifying, by indicating that one must go 
if the other does not, joining the substitute /to the name George. 

/ is a substitute, in the subjective case, direct, being connected 
by or, with the name George : Rule XV, part 1 — and having, 
separately considered, the asserter depending on this, as it does 
on the name George : Rule I, part 1. 

Neither nor, parsed together, is a connective, modifying, (the 
connective principle being entirely in nor,) connecting the name 
Seth with the name Henry. 

Seth is a name, in the subjective case, direct, being joined to 
Henry by nor, {neither nor, as a modifymg connective phrase :) 
Rule XV, part 1 ; and having the asserter can go depending on 

* See the JVote on the preceding jpag e. 



inParsirig'] syntax. 283 

this, in the same manner, (individually,) as on the name Henry : 
Rule I, part 1. 

Than is a connective, modifying, (used in close relation to rath- 
er,) joining the name Maiy to the name Emma. 

Mary is a name, in the objective case, direct, connected by than, 
with the name Emma : Rule XV, part 1 — and depending on the 
relative with ; Rule XIV, part 1. 

As well as is a connective, simple, joining the two names Har- 
riet and Maria. 

Maria is a name, in the objective case, direct, connected by as 
well as, with the name Harriet : Rule XV, part 1 — and depend- 
ing, with that name, on the asserter met : Rule VII, part 1. 

Not is a connective, modifying, joining to the name Joseph, the 
name William, and denying of the last named person, what is af- 
firmed of the first. 

Williatn is a name, in the subjective case, indirect, being join- 
ed by not, to the name Joseph: Rule XV, part 1 — and relating 
to the asserter is : Rule I, part 2. 

As is a connective, modifying, joining to the name Emilia, the 
name cousin, and so far modifying the sense of the sentence as to 
prevent my affirming that Emilia was James' cousin, though she 
was presented as such, and might, or might not have been his 
cousin. 

Cousin is a name, in the objective case, indirect, being joined 
by as to the name Emilia: Rule XV, part 1 — and used to ex- 
plain the character of the person denoted by the direct objective 
word Emilia : Rule IV, part 1. 

And is a connective, simple, joining the two asserters works 
and studies. 

Studies is an asserter, connected by and, with the asserter works : 
Rule XV, part 2 — and depending on, and agreeing with, the name 
William : Rule II, part 1. 

And is a connective, simple, joining the two adnames industri- 
ous and frugal. 

Frugal is an adname, connected by and, with the adname indus- 
trious : Rule XV, part 2 — and belonging to, and depending on, 
the name Helen: Rule XII, part 1. 

But is a connective, simple, joining the two modifiers rapidly 
and elegantly. 

Elegantly is a modifier, connected by but, with the modifier rap- 



SS4 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

idly : Rule XV, part 2 — and qualifying the fact described by the 
sentence James writes: Rule XIII, part 1. 

Yet is a connective, simple, joining the two relatives behind 
and near. 

Near is a relative, connected by yet, with the relative behind : 
Rule XV, part 2 — and showing one of the two relations (expres- 
sed) of the fact of Amelia's standing^ and her friends, as the ob- 
jects near (as well as behind) which she stood. 

And is a connective, joining the two interrogatives why and 
where. 

Where is an interrogative, joined by and, to the interrogative 
why : Rule XV, part 2 — and referring to the sense of the sen- 
tence before it, to which it refers : Rule XVI. 

Lesson XVI. 

(Illustration of Rule XVI.) 
Julia: Helen was displeased last evening. Why .^ Maria: I shall visit 
your father in New York. When ? James did three days' work in two. 
How ? Harriet very unexpectedly met her brother yesterday. Where ? 

Why is an interrogative, used to interrogate in reference to the 
fact expressed by the sentence before it, to which it refers : Rule 
XVI. 

When is an interrogative, used to ask a question in reference to 
what is expressed by the foregoing sentence, to which it refers : 
Rule XVI. 

How is an interrogative, used to ask a question in relation to the 
event mentioned by the sentence before it, to which it refers : 
Rule XVI. 

Where is an interrogative, used to question in reference to the 
fact to which it refers : Rule XVI. *a 

*a }Vhen, where, hoia and why m?iy be modiiiers; as, When did Henry go 
home? W^^ere did you meet him? iZbw; did he travel? M^A?/ did he return? 

b Here it is seen that the sentences would be interrogative without the 
foregoing words in Italic; as, Did Henry go home ? Did you meet him, 
&c. the words when, where, how, and why, being used here not to interro- 

fate, but only to modify or change the meaning of the sentences. Thus, if 
say, ' Did Henry go home ?' I ask as though wholly iguorant in relation 
to the fact : but if 1 say, ' When did Henry go home ?' I concede or admit 
that I know he has gone, and I now inquire only as to the time. The mod- 
ifying influence of the other three words has the same general effect, chan- 
ged only by their individual meaning. 

c When, where, and hoiv, are modifiers, when used in affirmative sen- 
teaces, only to indicate time, place, manner, or means, and the cause or 



in Parsing] syntax. 285 

Lesson XVII. 

(Illustration of Rule XVII.) 
Julia: will you accompany me to school to-day ? No Sir. George: 
will you go with me ? Yes. Hannah : can you visit Cynthia next week ? 
Probably. 

No is a replier, negative, constituting a full reply to the ques- 
tion expressed by the foregoing sentence, to which it alludes : Rule 
XVII. [For parsing the word Siry see note t, p 209.] 

Yes is a replier, affirmative, used to reply to the foregoing 
question ; and written according to Rule XVII. 

Probably is a replier, doubtful, used in answer to the foregoing 
question ; according to Rule XVII. 

Lesson XVIII. 

(Illustration of Rule XVIII.) 

* Alas ! the joys that fortune brings, 
Are trifling, and decay.' 

' Oh Death ! the aged Christian's friend.' 
Alas is an exclamation, standing independent of the sentence 
describing the facts to which it alludes : Rule XVIII. 

Oh is an exclamation, standing independent of any word, phrase, 
or sentence, yet alluding to the sentiment expressed by the words 
following it : Rule XVIII. 

Lesson XIX. 

[Substitute phrases, and other phrases, parsed in their relation to individual 
words in sentences.] 

EXAMPLE 1 SUBJECTIVE CASE. 

To maintain integrity of purpose and action thro life, ) , 
The maintenance ormtegnty of purpose and action thro life, j 
true greatness of soul. 

a Here the whole phrase or combination of words in the upper part of the 
brace, is a substitute phrase, in the direct subjective case from its relation to 
marks. The same may be said of all the words in the lower part of the 
brace, taken as a phrase. [See 172, p 92.] Yet, if we are to parse the 
individual words in these phrases, to maintain, in the upper line, is anas- 
reason of a thing, but not connecting sentences ; as, James told Henry when 
to start for home. I told George where to sit. William instructed Seth 
how to do the work. 

d When, ivhere, how, ^nd why, zre modifying connectives, when con- 
necting sentences ; as, Helen was sick — [one sentence] — I was at her fa- 
ther's — [another sentence.] Helen was sick when I was at her father's — 
the two simple sentences united by the modifying connective when. [Se© 
note *a, b, &c. &c. p 202.] 



286 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

sertive name, in the subjective case, direct, (as a mere name,) from its re- 
lation to marks ; {to maintain being the leading part of speech on 
which the others depend,) while integrity is in the objective case, depend- 
ing on to maintain, as a mere asserter; according to Rule VII, part 1. 

b To maintain, it is seen, sustains the same relation to marks, that the 
mere name maintenance sustains. To maintain, alone considered, does not 
express the full subject of remark ; nor does maintenance, alone, express 
the full subject: Each of the two words is the important word in its own 
phrase, the foundation of the remark — but maintenance, like to maintain, 
must be taken with its associate words to express the subject entire. It is 
not to maintain, merely, which marks true greatness of soul : nor is it the 
tnaintenance, merely, which does this ; but " to maintain integrity of 
purpose and action through life, marks," &c. — or, "the maintenance of 
integrity of purpose and action through life, marks," &c. 

c While the mere name maintenance, as one part of speech, is in the 
subjective case from its relation to wzarA;*,- and while the assertive name 
to maintain, as one part of speech, is in the same case, from the same rela- 
tion to marks — the other intermediate words, in both lines, are used to limit 
and qualify the meaning of these, the subjective words. 

d While the name integrity, in the upper line, depends on to maintain, 
[Rule VII, part 1;] the name integrity, in the lower line, depends on the 
relative of : [Rule XIV, part 1 ;] and the other corresponding words in the 
two lines are parsed exactly alike. So is it in 

EXAMPLE 2 — SUBJECTIVE CASE. 

The father of Helen Williams is in New York, cr- 
The father of James Cameron is in England, '^ 

a Here the nzme father, in either line, does not describe, fully, the subject 
of remark: for the two different names/a^Aer—/a/Aer, as limited and qual- 
ified, express very ditferent persons as the subjects. 

b It is not the father, merely, (otherwise independently expressed.) that 
is in New York, or that is in England : but it is the father of Helen Wil- 
liams that is in New- York, and the father of James Cameron that is in 
England. 

c It requires the whole of the five words in either example, to describe 
the subject of the remark : the whole five words, as one phrase, are, then 
in the subjective case before the asserter is : yet, 

d In parsing the individual words of the phrase of five words, the would 
be called an adname — the word father, as the important word denoting the 
person that all the words, together, represent as the subject : this word fa- 
ther is a name, in the subjective case, from its relation to is — the word o/a 
relative, and the two words Helen and Williams, used as one combination, 
are a name in the objective case, depending on the of in the upper line : just 
as the name James Cameron is in the objective case, depending on the of 
in the lower line. 

e {)ci= Words should ^r.9< be associated in groups or phrases, as far as cir- 
cumstances will allow, and should then be parsed in their individual capaci- 
ties and characters : as far, at least, as they can be separately considered 
without destroying the sense. 

/ Ocf-We should never carry the parsing of words individually so far as 



in Parsing} syntax. 287 

to break up the harmony of the parts of a sentence, and destroy the 
meaning of the words. Thus, I may say, 'John, at last, returned to his pa- 
rents' — yet at last, meaning finally, may not be separated ; for, I may not 
ask, ' John returned at what,' (by what, referring to the meaning of the 
word last:) for the word last, (as here used,) not expressing; a distinct ob- 
ject, may not be parsed separate from its associate word. The two words 
must be parsed together, as one part of speech : for in the place in which 
they are used, each would be nonsense without the other. 

EXAMPLE 3 — SUBJECTIVE CASE. 

*♦ To be wise in our own estimation, ^ 

To be wise in the opinion of the world, and > are three things 
To be wise in the sight of our Creator, ) 

so very different, as rarely to coincide." 

a Here the several phrases in the brace are jointly in the simple subjec- 
tive case, direct, having the asserter are depending on them : Rule I, pt. 1. 

b The word ^^mg-5 is in the indirect subjective case, from-its relation 
to the asserter are, after which it occurs : Rule V, part 1. 

c To be wise, in each line, parsed together, as a substitute phrase, (it is 
not to be separated without destroying the sense,) acts with the same phra- 
ses in the other lines, in the same manner as to maintain, in example 1. 

d In, in each example, shows the relation between the state of existence, 
abstractly considered, which is expressed by to he wise, and the idea ex- 
pressed by its next following name, which is in the objective case-, -depend- 
ing on the relative in. 

EXAMPLE 4 — SUBJECTIVE CASE. 

*' To bear, J 

w > our fate." 
to conquer, ) 

a Here to bear, as an assertive name, is in the direct subjective case be- 
fore is, and to conquer is in the indirect subjective after is; while the name 
fate is in the simple objective case, direct, from its relation to each assertive 
name in its assertive capacity — to bear our fate — or, to conquer our fate : 
yet the force of the two words our fate, is associated with each of the as- 
sertive names, to complete the subjective sense, as much as though the 
words were twice used ; as, to bear our fate, is to conquer our fate. 

EXAMPLE 5 — SUBJECTIVE CASE. 

To be a door-keeper in the house of God, ^ *#gbetter 

i . . ( ^^ 

to dwell in the tents of wickedness. ) 

a Here the first phrase is in the direct subjective case — and the second 
phrase in the indirect subjective : while to he a door-keeper, as an insepar- 
able phrase, is the leading or important part of the first phrase — like to main- 
tain, in example 1 ; and to dwell is the leading member of the phrase in 
the lower line. 

b To be a door-keeper may not be divided, and parsed separately : for it 



288 SYNTAX. [Exercises 

requires the whole combination to denote the office, state or condition which 
is preferable to the other state or condition mentioned. 

EXAMPLE 6 POSSESSIVE CASE. 

The Duke of Bridgewater's canal was deemed a great under- 
taking. 

a Here the whole phrase, the Duke of Bridgewater's, is in the simple 
possessive case, direct, depending on the name canal: Rule III — yet 

b The, considered in reference to the following part of the phrase^ is an 
adname, depending on Dnke of Bridgewater's, as u name : Rule XII, pt. 1. 

c Oc|=[The phrase Duke of Bridgewater's may not be divided in parsing 
it, as a part of a sentence, any more than we may divide the name Mary, 
in parsing, by first parsing Ma-, as one word, and then ry, as another.] See 
' brother-in-law's,' and ' Duke of Orleans',' as parsed on p 268. 

EXAMPLE 7 OBJECTIVE CASE. 

Obj. 



Jack was whipped for ^^stealing ^^C^Dfruit. 

Obj. 

a Here the whole phrase stealing fruit, as a substitute phrase, is in the 
objective case, direct, depending on for, showing the whole fact for which 
the boy was whipped : yet, in parsing the individual words of the phrase, 
stealing, as the leading or important word, is an assertive name, being, in 
its name capacity, in the direct objective case, depending on the relative /or, 
just like any mere name — [He was whipped /or theft — he was whipped 
for STEALING :] Rule XIV, part 1 — and the name fruit is in the direct 
objective case, depending on the assertive name stealing, in its assertive ca- 
pacity : Rule VII, part 1. [See note *, p 51.] 

EXAMPLE 8 OBJECTIVE CASE. ' 

* Earth's highest station ends in 

a In this example the three words here he lies, constitute a substitute 
phrase, in the direct objective case, depending on in, which shows the re- 
lation of the fact first mentioned, to the last mentioned fact or circumstance 
described by the objective phrase here he lies — while 

b Here, parsed individually, is a modifier, quaUfj-ing the fact of the per- 
son's lying— Rule XIII, part 1. 

c He is a substitute, for the name of the person buried — (this phrase be- 
ing presented as an ordinary inscription on a grave stone) — it is in the sub- 
jective case, direct, relating to the asserter lies : Rule I, part 1 — and 

c Lies is an asserter, depending on the direct subjective word he : Rule 
II, part 1. 

O^For further exhibitions of phrases, variously related to sentences, see 
the subsequent " Sections" of Diagrams, &c. &c. 




in Parsing] syntax. 289 

EXAMPLE 9 OBJECTIVE CASE. 

f to ramble 
I among 
James loves •{ the 

I wood-coveied 
t hills. 

a Here, loves is a transitive asserter, and all the words at the right of the 
brace, taken together, constitute the objective phrase, or a substitute phrase 
in the objective case, depending on loves: Rule VII, part 1 : yet, to ram- 
bley parsed separately, would be regarded as an assertive name, (as the word 
rambling would be, if thus used,) in the objective case after loves — while 
the following words would be parsed according to their relation to to ram- 
ble, and the words before it. The sentence might stand, 'James loves to 
ramble,' or, ' James loves rambling' — to ramble, or rambling, showing 
what he loves: yet, to ramble, as well as rambling, must be considered in 
connection with the words following : for, though James loves ra7nbling, 
or to ramble^ yet it is rambling, or to ramble, as limited and qualified by 
the words following, * among the wood-covered hills.' 

b The asserter in the dependent mode, first division, almost always has 
the office of an assertive phrase, and is often used in the si<5jective,as well 
as the objective case ; as, ' To ramble (among the wood-covered hills) is 
James' delight.' [Here it is used m the subjective case.] I love to study 
— [objective case.] To study, is better than to be idle. [To study is 
here in the subjective case, direct — while the inseparable substitute phrase 
to be idle, is in the subjective case, indirect.] 

Lesson XX. 

[Showing how, to a certain extent, the principles of this work can be ap- 
plied in the manner of the old theorists : yet the author of this work 
would not, by any means, recommend to the teacher or learner to pursue 
this, the old track. ] 



George is a very studious child. The little girls ate an orange 
in the store. ! I have alienated my friend. 

George is a noun, proper, of the masculine gender, of the third person, 
of the singular number, in the nominative case to is. 

Is is a verb, intransitive or neuter, in the indicative mode, present tense, 
of the singular number, agreeing with its nominative George. [Rule — A 
verb must agree with its nominative, &c.] 

Jl is an article, indefinite, agreeing with its noun child. [Here might be 
given the Rule.] 

Very is an adverb, qualifying the adjective studious. [Rule — Adverbs 
qualify, &c. &c.] 

Studious is an adjective, in the positive degree, belonging to the noun 
child. [Rule.] 

Child is a noun, common, of the common gender, of the third person, 
of the singular number, in the nominative case after the verb is. [Rule.] 



290 SYNTAX. [Diagrams and 

The is an article, definite, belonging to, or agreeing with, the noun giV/*. 
[Rule.] 

Little is an adjective, in the positive degree, belonging to the noun girls. 
[Rule.] 

Girls is a common noun, of the feminine gender, of the third person, and 
pitfVhl number, and in the nominative case to ate. [Rule.] 

Ate is an irregular active verb, in the indicative mode, and imperfect tense, 
and agrees with its nominative girls. [Rule.] 

An is an indefinite article, agreeing with the noun orange. [Rule.] 

Orange is a common noun, of neuter gender, third person, and singular 
number, and in the objective case, and governed* by ate. [Rule — Active 
verbs govern the objective case.] 

In is a preposition . 

The is a definite article, and agrees with, or belongs to, the noun store, 
[Rule.] 

Store is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third person, the singular 
number, in the objective case, and governed by in. [Rule — Prepositions 
govern the objective case.] 

Oh is an interjection. 

/is a personal pronoun, of the common gender, of the first person, singu- 
lar number, and in the nominative case to have alienated. 

Have alienated is a regular active verb, in the indicative mode, present 
tense, agreeing with its nominative /. [Rule.] 

My is a personal pronoun, of the common gender, first person, and sin- 
gular number, in the possessive case, and governed by friend. [Rule.] 

Friend is a common noun, of the common gender, third person, singu- 
lar number, in the objective case, governed by have alienated. [Rule.] 



DIAGRAMS AND TRANSPOSITION, 

412 In Sections, corresponding, in number, with the Rules 
to which they more particularly refer. 

413 ^l^^'Transposition is not intended to change, in the 
least, the relations of words in sentences; but only to exhib- 
it the realj existing relations, in a clearer light to the learner. 

414 ^l3=Transposition does not affect the parsing of 
words, in the least ; for the words of a sentence must be 
parsed precisely the same ivithout transposition, as ivith. 

415 Transposition, by any person, is not intended to give 
to the transposer the meaning of the author of the piece — 

*See the remark over Lesson VII, p 68. 



Transposition] syntax. 291 

for the transposer must (first) learn the meaning before he 
can be sure of transposing correctly.* 

SECTION I. 

1 Was John Adams president ? 2 Are George and Seth 
your cousins. 3a ' The well need not a physician, but the sick.' 
Sb The sick need a physician, not the well. 4 ' Why is life, a 
moment ? desire, infinite .'' our wish, eternity ? our home, the 
grave ?' 5 ' Is there no central, all-sustaining base ? all-realizing, 
all-connecting power ?^ 

EXPLANATIONS I 



1 Was H°'"!,^t"' 2 Are I ^ 

{ president .-' ( yc 



f John Adams ^ a „„ ( George and Seth 

^our cousins ? 



Here, (1) the name John Adams is in the direct subjective case, in its 
relation to was, which depends on it : Rule I, part 1 — and president is in 
tlie indirect subjective case from its relation to the name John Adaius, and 
to the same asscrter, (which does not depend on president, b\it on John Ad- 
ams :) Rule I, part 2. 

Next (2) the names George and Seth are in the direct subjective case, 
from their relation to are: Rule I, part 1 — and the name cousins in the in- 
direct subjective, from relation to the names George and Seth^ and to the 
asserter are: Rule I, part 2. 

3a The well ^ ^not 

I > need ^ a physician, 
the sick. ) ■ 
36 The sick, ^ 

I > need a physician, 
the well, ) 

Here, (3a) the adnarae substitute well is in the direct subjective case 
from relation to need: Rule I, part 1 — and the adname substitute sick^ ia 
the indirect subjective: Rule I, part 2: the negative sense of the modifier 
not, is to be allowed in reference to only the direct subjective, which, ta- 
ken with the following words, constitutes a negative sentence — while the 
word sick, taken with all of the following words, except not, constitutes an 
affirmative sentence. 

Next, (36) the word sick is the direct subjective word of the asserter 
need; and the word well, an indirect subjective — the word not, (a modify- 
ing connective,) joining the word loell with the rest of the sentence, and 
exerting its negative influence on the word well, and the words considered 
in relation to it. 

*One writer on Grammar most strangely remarks, that " in order ^o come 
at the meaning of the author, you will find it necessary to transpose his lan- 
guage," &c. not perceiving that unless the learner first ' comes at' [under- 
stands,] the meaning of a sentence, it will be useless to try to transpose the 
words. 



292 SYNTAX. [Diagrams and 

f life, a moment ? 
4. Wh * J ^^^^^^» ij^fioite ? 

^ ^ j our wish, eternity ? 
[ our liome, the grave ? 

'central, ) , . 

11 / • • > base ? 

r- T n 1 all-sustaining:, I 

5 Is there no < i, ,. • i 

all-reahzmg, ) ^ 

all-connecting, ) " 

Here, (4) why is a modifier — (see *a, b, c, p 284)— Zi/e is in the direct 
subjective case, from relation to is; Rule I, part 1— and moment, in the 
indirect subjective, from relation to is: Rule I, part 2 — and infinite is an 
adname, belonging to desire : Rule XII, part 1. Our is a substitute, de- 
pending on wish: Rule III — wish is in the direct subjective case, from re- 
lation to is: Rule I, part 1 — and eternity is in the indirect subjective, from 
relation to wish: Rule I, part 2. [Owr, 7iome, and grave, are parsed just 
like our, wish, and eternity — the asserter is depending on, and agreeing 
with, each of the direct subjective words separately considered. 

Next, (5) the asserter is refers to, depends on, and agrees with, each of 
the two names base z.nA power, (in the direct subjective case :) Rule II, 
part 1. There, is a modifier of sound, (see note fa, b, p 252) used only to 
aid the euphony of the sentence in which it occurs, and to which it refers : 
Rule XIII, part 1. JSTo is a negative adname, belonging to the names base 
and power, (each being considered separately,) as these names are associa- 
ted with their respective ad names. Central and all-sustaining are ad- 
names, belonging, individually, to the name base : Rule XII, part 1 — and 
the other two adnames belong, individually, to the name jootoer ; Rule XII. 
part 1. [The word realizing is here used in its strict sense — meaning, to^ 
make, or cause to be, real, or substantial, permanent and enduring. [Each 
of the two names, base and power, separately considered, is in the direct 
subjective case, from relation to is: Rule I, part 1.] 

SECTION II. 

1 He ate, and drank, and slept, his life away. 2 He perplex- 
ed, not convinced ; he conquered, not converted, his opponent. — 
3 He gained or lost property, according to circumstances. 4 He 
bought and sold his whole estate away. 

EXPLANATIONS : 

'ate, ^ 

1 He <{ drank, )■ his life away. 

i I 

, slept, J 

Here it is seen that each of the asserters refers individually to the direct 
subjective word he, with which each asserter agrees : Rule II, part 1 — 
while the name life is in the simple, (not two^fold,) objective case, direct, 
from its relation to all three of the asserters, considered jointly, unitedly, 
or together, as one asserter — for the person did not eat his life away, (spjend 



Tratisposilionl syntax. 293 

it all in eatins;^) mereJy — nor did he drink liis life away, (spend all his 
life in drinking,) merely — nor did he sleep his life away, (spend all his life 
in sleeping,) merely: but he ate, and drarjc, and slept it all away — that is, 
he squandered his life in these three states — eating, drinking, and sleeping. 
It required all three facts, to waste, spend, or consume his whole life — the 
name life being seen to be in the simple objective case, direct, depending 
on all three assei-ters, as though one asserter ; as, 

Seating, 
He spent his life in < drinking, 

^sleeping. 

2 ( perplexed, 
He ] I 

f convinced ; 



( conquered, 
he] I 

( converted, 



his opponent. 



Here the subjective words he — he, have each two asserters depending on 
it: Rule II, part 1 — perplexed and ronymceci depending, each, on the first 
word he; according to Rule II, part I — and conquered and converted de- 
petiding on the second he ; according to the same rule : yet the word oppo- 
nent is in the simple objective case, direct, from its relation to each of the 
four asserters ; according to Rule VII, part 1. 

C gained ^ 
3 He < 5 > property, according to circumstances. 
( lost ) 

Here both the asserters gained and lost, individually depend on, and a- 
gree with, the subjective word he: Rule II, part 1 — while the name prop- 
erty depends on each of the asserters gained and lost^ individually consid- 
ered : Rule VII, part 1. 

( bought J 
4 He < I > his whole ettate away. 
( sold ) 

Here the two asserters bought and sold, individually depend on, and a- 
gree with, the word /if,- and the word estate is in the simple objective 
case, direct, depending on both asserters, conjointly considered, as one — for 

( bought ) 
the person did not iw?/ his estate away, or «e/^ it away — but he < | > it 

i sold S 
away — that is, he bought and sold, or traded, till he lost his estate — till it 
was sold for him, to pay his debts. The word away, as a modifier, is very 
closely connected, in sense, with the sense of the two asserters, as joined to 
the word he: Rule XIII, part 1. 

SECTION HI. 

1 J. Hatheway & Company's store. 2 Messrs. Hunter & 
Austin's furnace. 3 J. W. & R. S. Porter & Sons' manufac- 
tory. 



25^ 



^4 svNTAs:. (Jbtdgrdfiis arid 

EXPLANATIONS I 

1 J. Hatheway' ^ 

& > 's store. 

Company) 

Here, the two names are united as one, to constitute the name of the ti'a- 
ding company or firm : and the apostrophe ( ') and the apostrophic « {'s) be-* 
long to both names as one name — in the same manner as it would to one per- 
son's name in two parts ; as, ^jig^r^ ( 's house. /. Hatheway imA Com^ 

panyy as one name, is in the simple possessive case, direct, depending on the 
name store : Rule III. 



2 Messrs. < & > 's furnace. 




Here the term of address Messrs, belongs, as an adname, to both of the 
names in the brace, not to either of them separately — lor it is not Messrs. 

C Hunter 
Hunter i ot Messrs. Austin — ^but Messrs. < & 

( Austin. 
The apostrophe and s belong to both names as one — for it is not Mr, 

C Hunter ) 
iZMW^er** furnace, or JV^. ^wsifm'5 furnace, but it is Messrs. < & V's 

( Austin ) 
furnace. The two names, as one, depend on the name Jurnace : Rule IH. 

/. w. ^ 

3 it Porter & Sons^ manufactory. 
R. S.) 

AH these names in Italic, Considered as one, are, as one name of the firm 
or company, in the simple possessive case, direct, depending on the name 
manufactory : Rule HI. 

SECTION IV. 

1 George Washington, commander-in-chief, and first President, 
died Dec. 14th, 1799. 2 " How shall we rank thee on bright 
glory's page .'' Thou, more than hero, and just less than sage.'' 

3 No further seek his merits to disclose, 

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 
(There they alike in trembling hope repose,) 
The bosom of his father and his God. — Gray. 

4 Hope, Love, and Joy, fair Pleasure's smiling train. 
Fear, Hate and Grief, the family of Pain ; 
These, mixed with art, and to due bounds confined. 
Make and maintain the balance of the mind — 

The lights and shades, whose well-accorded strife 
Gives all the strength and color of our life.-^PopE. 



Transposition] sy*t1x. 295' 

EXPLANATIONS I 

f commander-in-chief, "] 
1 George Washington (j(f=. - - | - - died Dec. 14, 1799. 
[ first president, J 

Here the name George Washingtoti is the direct subjective of the as- 
seiter died — while the other two names are, individually, in the indirect 
subjective case from relation to the direct subjective : Rule IV, part 1. 

C more than hero, 
2 Thou,^ I 

( justlessthan sage. 

Here, the word thou is in the independent case, direct : Rule VI — and 
the names hero and sage individually in the independent case, indirect, from 
relation to thou: Rule IV, part 1 — both names having the same relation to 
thouy and each being used in addition to, and explanatory of, the word 
thou. The words more than, act together, as one part of speech, a quali- 
fying adname, belonging to, and depending on, the name hero : Rule XII, 
part 1 — less than having the same relation to sage: Rule XII, part 1 — and 
Just being an auxiliar adname limiting the meaning of its principal : Rule 
XII, part 2. 



( disclose his merits, 
to^ s 



3 No further seek tu ■< 

( draw his frailties 

( their dread O00C?e, IThere they allke in trembUng hope repose— l 

from < ( his father 

(the bos om of < | 

( his God. 

Here, disclose and draw, alike, refer to, and are associated with, the 
word to, as a part of each asserter— -both these, (and seek,) are used absolute, 
(see 188, p 103,) and each has its own objective word depending on it. — 
From, shows relation between the fact of drawing the person^s frailties, 
and ihe'i'c place or abode. The name abode, restricted by the word their ^ 
and as qualified by the word dread, is in the direct objective case, depend- 
ing on from: Rule XIV, part 1 — and the name bosom, as limited by the 
following words, is in the objective case, indirect, being given to explain in 
reference to the place or abode mentioned : Rule IV, pt. 1. There, as a modi- 
fier, derives its qualifying influence from reference to the word abode, and 
exerts the influence on the sentence describing the fact of the merits and 
frailties reposing: Rule XIII, part 1. The two names father and God 
are each in the objective case, direct ; both alike depending on the relative 
from: Rule XIV, part 1. 

4 s 

Hope, / 
and ?<■""" Pleasure's smiling train, * * « - - - .^t^ , - I Lights 

Joy, Si. < 

1 W ( mixed with art, and confined to due bounds, J 

\ these, I > th( 

Pp^j. J y C makeand maintain the balance of the mind: / 

^a*>'d' /'lie family of Pain; ' * * " " * " «=C30 ^ - I Shades j 

Grief. ^ 

well accorded strife gives »1I the strength and color of oui liffl. 



296 SYNTAX. [Diagrams aud 

Here the word train is used to explain the character of the first three e- 
motions, and the word family ^ to characterize the last three — the word 
these, is used for describing the circumstances of all six emotions, as mix- 
ed, &c — the word Z,tg-A<s is used to characterize, further, the ^rsf three emo- 
tions to which it points or refers : and Shades, to characterize the last three: 
while whose relates to both, as represented, and connects what describes the 
result of these different principles' being united. 

First, the first three emotions, by personification, are made to appear as a 
smiling train of persons ; and the last three (the darker) emotions, as a 
less attractive train, company, or family of persons. 

Next, from the word these, (meaning all six emotions,) the personifica- 
tion is lost in the literal expression of these six principles as mere passions, 
which, " mixed,'^ or alternating in their exercise, constitute [^ make'] and 
maintain the balance of the mind. 

Next, from the word lights, the expression is changed from literal to fig- 
urative, by representing the first three passions referred to by lights, (see 
the index, [<=Ci(j] ) as the lighter colors in a portrait — and the last three pas- 
sions, referred to by shades, (see the index, \_-4£i\ ) as the darker colors ia 
a portrait ; while, to the imagination of the poet, these colors are anima- 
ted^ and emulously striving or viemg with each other in starting into notice 
or observation. 

The word these is in the direct subjective case, from relation to each of 
the asserters make and maintain : Rule I, part 1 — and from relation to mix- 
ed and confined, (in the dependent mode :) Rule I, part 1. The first six 
names are in the indirect subjective, from relation to the word these — and 
the words lights and shades are in the indirect subjective case, from rela- 
tion to their respective sets of words, hope, &c. and fear, &c. Rule IV, 
part 3 — and from referring, through those names, to the word these: Rule 
IV, part 1 : while the, next before lights and shades, refers and belongs to 
each of these names ; according to Rule XII, part 1. The word whose, 
substituted for the names lights and shades, embodies the sense of the first 
six names hope, fear, &c. and depends on strife : Rule III. 

The word train embodies and characterizes the sense of the first three 
words, hope, &c. — while family embodies and characterizes the sense of 
the three names before it,/ea/-, &c. The ideas are still more condensed in, 
and expressed by, the word these, which includes the meaning of both the 
words train and family, as, also, by their means, the sense of the six names, 
{hope, &c. and/ea?', &c.) — while lights and shades separate the ideas into 
the original two classes, as seen in the first two braces — and, by the word 
whose, the sense of the whole six is again condensed, and carried forward 
by the words following whose. 

Although this blending of the literal with {he figurative is a defect, con- 
sidered in relation to Rhetoric, yet there is something really beautiful in 
each of the different representations which the author makes. It is doubt- 
ed whether the English language affords another instance of soclearly blend- 
ing and condensing sentiments in a style corresponding with the acuteness 
of the author's intelligence. 

SECTION V. 

1 The soul, on earth is an immortal guest, 

Compelled to starve at an unreal feast ; 
A spark that upward tends, by Nature's force ; 



Transposition^ syntax. 297 

A stream diverted from its parent source ; 

A drop dissevered from the boundless sea ; 

A moment parted from eternity ; 

A pilgrim panting for the rest to come ; 

An exile anxious for his native home. — H. More. 

2 " The careless and the inconstant, the ungrateful and the in- 
terested, the timidly virtuous, and the openly vile, the covetous 
and the prodigal, are the bane of social life." 

3 Tinne, v\rasted, is existence — used, is life. — Young. 

4 Nature, 

Whose garments are the clouds ; whose minstrels, brooks ; 

Whos-e lamps, the moon and stars ; whose organ choir, the voice of 
many waters ; 

Whose banquets, morning dews ; whose heroes, storms ; 

Whose warriors, mighty winds ; whose lovers, flowers ; 

Whose orators, the thunder-bolts of God ; whose palaces, the ever- 
lasting hills ; 

Whose ceiling, heaven's unfathomable blue. — Pollok, 

EXPLANATIONS : 

'^:#|)an immortal guest ;* 
1 "#Da spark that upward tends by Nature's force ; 

^^a stream diverted from its parent source ; 
The 50?f/,^i^is-{ ^#j}a drop dissevered from the boundless sea ; 
[on earth,] ^€^a moment parted from eternity ; 

^^■di pilgrim panting for the rest to come ; 
^^^an exile anxious for his native home. 

Here is the one direct subjective word soul, before the asserter is — and 
the seven indirect subjectives in Italic, after the asserter — and all used to 
describe the one direct subject — the soul ; Rule V, part 1. 

2 The careless^ (^' 

and the inconstant^ i^ 

the ungratefuly ^(^ 

and the mterested gj ^^^ j^^ ^ j„^^ ^^ ^^^;^, y^ 

the Ummy virtuous, ^(^ { ^ 

and the openly vile^ {fe^ 

the covetous, ^h[^ 

and the prodigal, {^ 

Here are eight adname substitutes in the direct subjective case before the 
asserter are — and one indirect subjective after it ; and this one {bane)Msed 
to describe the eight direct subjects. Rule V, part 1. 

o rr- i Mrasted, is existence — 
3 Time, { j • rr 
' ( used, IS lite. 

Here the name time is the direct subjective of each of the four asserters; 
according to Rule I, part 1. This name, as explained by the asserter wast- 

*Compelled to starve at an unreal feast* ~ 



298 SYNTAX. {Diagrams and 

ed, is the direct subjective before the first asserter is, which has the name 
existence as the indirect subjective alter it : and, aa explained by the asser- 
ter used, is the direct subjective before the last asserter is, v^-'hich has the 
name <: li/i as the indirect subjective after it. 

This is the expression of a fine moral sentiment — thdit time^ wasted, ^ives 
a person but the mere existence of brutes, or inanimate things : while time, 
properly used, or improved^ gives him a high rational existence, which may 
emphatically be called life. 



-Nature, 



Whose GARMENTS 

whose minstrels, 
whose lamps, 
whose organ-choir, 
whose banquets, 
whose heroes, 
whose warriors, 
whose lovers, 
whose orators, 
whose palaces, 
whose ceiling. 



ARE 



'^the clouds; 

brooks ; 
the moon and stars ; 
the voice of many waters ; 

morning dews ; 

storms ; 

mighty winds ; 

flowers ; 
the thunderbolts of God ; 
the everlasting hills ; 
heaven's unfathomable blue. 



Here we have, according to Rule I, part 1, one direct subjective word, 
GARMENTS, on which the asserter are depends, and with which the asser- 
ter agrees : Rule II, part 1. The name garments has the word clouds as 
its corresponding indirect subjective — and each of the indirect subjectives 
on the left of the asserter, has a corresponding indirect subjective on the 
right — there being, in the whole diagram, but one direct subjective, yet 
twenty-two indirect subjectives which relate to the asserter, but have no 
influence on it : Rule I, part 2. [See notes fA, b, c, &c. p 236.] 

SECTION VI. 

1 "0 cursed, cursed Sin ! traitor to God and ruiner of man — 

Mother of Wo, Despair, and Death." 

2 " O God our help in ages past ; 

Our hope for years to come." 



s 



EXPLANATIONS : 

traitor to God, 



(Wo, 



1 { Tset } ^^"M - I ^ - - - ^0^^^^ of ^ Despair, an. 
^ ' ' l^rmner ot man : ( Death. 

Here the exclamation O refers to the expression following it : Rule XVIII. 
The two adnames belong to the name Sin: Rule XII, part 1. Sin is in 
the independent case, direct: Rule VI — and the two names traitor and ru- 
iner in the independent case, indirect : Rule IV, part 1. The word moth- 
er, in the independent case, indirect, is given to explain, not the names frat- 
tor and ruiner, after which it occurs, but the word Sin : Rule IV, part 1 , 
The name God is in the objective case, direct, from relation to to ; and the 
name man^ from relation to the first of, while the other three names are in- 



Transposition} syntax. 299 

dividually in the simple objective case, direct, from relation to the last of: 
all three having the same relation to, and dependence on, the relative. 

( our hope lor years to come. 

Here the name God is in the independent case, direct : Rule VI — and 
the names help and hopCy each in the independent case, indirect, being 
given in addition to, and explanatory of, the name God: Rule IV, part 1 ; 
both, alike, relating to the name God. 

SECTION YII. 

la " I came to call, not the righteous, but sinners, to repent- 
ance, lb I came to call sinners, not the righteous, to repentance." 
2 Flesh shall not feel, or, feeling, shall enjoy the rack. — Young. 

3 See anger, zeal and fortitude, supply ; [produce] 
Even avarice, prudence ; sloth, philosophy. 

4 First, force made conquest, and that conquest, law; 
Till Superstition taught the tyrant awe : 

They shared the tyranny, then lent it aid ; 

And gods of conquerors ; slaves, of subjects, made. — Pope. 

EXPLANATIONS t 

not{|t^ ( the righteous, ^ 
la I came to call ^ < f > to repentance. 

( sinners, ) 

Here, both the adname substitute righteous, and the name sinners, are 
individually in the objective case, direct, from relation to to call — the neg- 
ative influence of the modifier not, being confined to the sense of the word 
righteous, as joined to the words before and after ; this combination being 
negative in sense, while the word sinners, joined to the words with which 
it is connected, constitutes an affirmative remark. 

f sinners^ ^ 
\h \ came to call i I > to repentance. 

[^ the righteous, ) 
Here both the words in /ifa/ic are objective ; the word not exerting its 
modifying influence wholly on the word righteous, as connected with the 
sentence. 

f shall not feel,^ '} 
2 Flesh^(^\ or, feeling, ^(^ ;>the rack. 
(" shall enjoy, ^C^ 3 
Here each of the three asserters refers to, and depends on, its direct sub- 
jective word flesh, in the simple subjective case, from its relation to each : 
while the word rack is in the simple objective case, direct, from relation to. 
each of the three transitive asserters. 

C anger ^ C zeal and fortitude ; 

3 See < even avarice > supply < prudence ; 
f sloth \ ( philosophy. 



800 SYNTAX. {Diagrams and 

Here the three names in Italic are each in the two-fold case : the objec- 
tive, direct, from relation to see: Rule VII, part 1— and in the subjective, 
direct, from relation to supply, [used in the sense oi produce :] Rule I,pt. 
1 ; while the four names in the last brace, are each in the objective case, 
direct, depending on supply : Rule VII, part 1. Supply is in the dependent 
mode ; and see is in the commanding mode absolute, 

C FORCE ^ C conquest, 

4 First, < I > MADE < 

( that conquest, } ( law, 

Till Superstition taught [ *^^ ^^'^""^ 
^ ^ { awe : 

f shared the tyranny, then lent V • i . 

I V §^^^ } \ conquerors; 

(^ made < | / ^'^ \ 

( slaves ) ( subjects. 

Here the words first and then are modifiers. Force is in the direct sub- 
jective case : Rule I, part 1 — and the word conquest, in the first brace, is 
in the indirect subjective : Rule I, part 2. Made depends on force : Rule 
II, part 1 ; though conquest relates to the asserter : Rule I, part 2. Each 
of the names in the second brace is in the direct objective case, depending 
on made : Rule VII, pt. 1. Both names in the third brace are in the direct 
objective case, depending on taught : Rule IX. They, (meaning Supersti- 
tion and the tyrant,) is in the direct subjective case, from relation to each 
of the three asserters in the fourth brace. The names gods and slaves are 
each in the direct objective case, depending on made. Of shows the rela- 
tion of the fact of making gods, to the conquerors or the persons of whom 
the gods are made : and the relation of the fact of making slaves, to the 
subjects (the persons,) of whom the slaves are made — the words conquer- 
ors and subjects being each in the objective case, direct, depending on of : 
Rule XIV, part 1. 

SECTION VIII. 

Henry struck the door a heavy blow, which caused the door to 
fly open. 

EXPLANATIONS I 

Henry struck < , , i ? which caused the door to fly open. 

Here, struck, is used in two different meanings. In reference to the 
meaning of the name door it is clearly transitive : for, in this connection, 
struck medins hit : hut struck, in another sense, might mean oii\y to tno- 
lion, or to move some instrument, or some member of the body ; yet the 
word blow, coming after struck, causes it to assume a transitive relation to 
the sentence. The word door is in the objective case, depending on struck: 
Rule VII, part 1 ; and the word blow is in the objective case, depending on 



Transposition] syntax. 301 

struck: Rule VIIF — while both may be regarded as depending on struck; 
according to Rule IX. [See note t p 275] 

The wordwhich, is asubstitute for the whole sentence before it, {'I struck 
the door a heavy bloWy*) and in the direct subjective case, from relation to 
caused. 

SECTION IX. 

1 I brought James Jackson some drink. 2 I sold George 
a house. 

EXPLANATIONS I 

ITU Li S James Jackson -^ t ^^ ^ Georqe 
1 I brought { J . ; 2 1 sold < y ^ 

° ( some annk. ( a house. 

Here, (I) the r\dimes James Jackson and drink, are respectively in the 
obiective case, direct, depending on the tran.sitive asserter brought: Rule 
IX — and in the second example, the names George and house, in the ob- 
jective case, direct, depend on sold: Rule IX.* 

SECTION X. 

1 James taught Helen Grammar. 2a Helen was taught Gram- 
mar. 2b Grammar was taught Helen. 

EXPLANATIONS I 

Helen 



Q' 



1 James taujrht % ^ 

^ brrammar. 



Subj. 



2a Helen(^ was taught -^Grammar. 



Obj. 

Subj. 

26 Grammar{j(^ was taught ^#^Helen. 



Obj. 

Here, (1) it is seen that the two names in the brace are in the objective 
case, direct, from relation to the transitive asserter : Rule IX. (See over) 

*The learner must not imagine that it would be consistent with good, 
taste to use, in the receptive sense, with one objective word, every transi- 
tive asserter, which admits two objectives, (on the principle recognized by 
Rule IX,) for we have some transitive asserters which do not allow being 
used receptively at all ; as, befall, resemhle, and cost. The last may be 
used transitively, according to Rule IX ; (as. That act of imprudence 

cost \ , . ,./ S but it can not properly be used in the receptive sense at 

all. 

The old theorists assert, that •* every transitive verb [asserter] may be 
used passively ;" [receptively.] Did they ever see these three. 
26 



802 SYNTAX. [Diagrams and 

Next, (2a) one of these objective words, the name Helen, is macle to 
assume the subjective relation to the receptive asserter mjo5 /awg:/j^ and the 
other objective word, Grammar, is still objective, from relation to the re- 
ceptive asserter : Rule X, part 1— and 

Next (2b ) by a still further reversing of the arrangement of the words 
of the sentence, the word Helen, before subjective, is made to assume the 
objective relation : Rule X, part 2-and the r^^me Grammar before objec- 
tive, is made to assume the subjective relation. [See notes *a, b,c, p248.] 

SECTION XI. 

James can read Latin better than Henry can Greek. 

EXPLANATIONS : 

James can read c#|} Latin better than Henry can c#j)Greek. 

Obj. Obj. 

Here it is seen that the name Latin is in the objective case, direct :Rule_ 
VII Dart 1— and that the second word can, assumes the force andothce ot 
the full asserter can rtat?; Rule XI; and that the objective name GreeA: 
depends on can, as a transititve asserter : Rule ^ II, part 1. 

SECTION XII. 

Poor man !— a spark 

Glittering a moment— — 

Midst upper, nether, and surrounding night, 
His sad, sure, sudden, and eternal tomb. 
[Young, on the infideVs view of existence and annihilation. ] 

EXPLANATIONS *. 

Poor man ! — a spark 

'' upper/'"'^ _ _ _ - ^ 



Glittering a moment midst \ and surrounding (jif-night, 

^ nether,{|cf^ _ - _ . -^ 

fsad, 1 

1 sure, I 

fHisOit^ . - - - [>tomb. 
I sudden,- • • | 
[and eternal, J 



*The reverse of this gloomy picture of an infidel's thoughts at death, Dr. 
Young gives in another place, in most striking language— thus, 
Believe, and shoio the reason of a man : 
Believe, and taste the pleasure of a God: 
Believe, and look with triumph on the tomb. 
\a (KI^The similarity between an adname and a word in the simple pas- 
smiyecase, is this : both may belong to, and depend on, a name ; as, 

•^^^^'*Jbook-or^"Jbook. 
new \ new I 

Both words in each brace, alike refer to, and depend on, the name 6ao^.[over] 



Transpositim\ syntax. 303 

Here, first, we have the three adnames belonging to the one name night, 
and showing that the darkness or night extends above, below, and around 
the object referred to. 

Next, we have the substitute his depending on tomh : Rule III — and 
next the four adnames belonging to the name to7nb: Rule XII, part 1. 

SECTION XIII. 

1 James labors and studies diligently. 2 George writes re- 
markably fast and elegant. 

EXPLANATIONS I 

1 C labors ^2 C fast 

James < | > diligently. George writes remarkably < | 

( studies ) ( elegant* 

Here, (1) the principal modifier elegantly qualifies the fact expressed by 
each of the asserters, taken with the subjective word James: Rule XIII, 
part 1. 

Next, (2) the auxiliar modifier remarkably qualifies the meaning of each 
of the principals, (fast and elegant,) and through that, the fact mention- 
ed : Rule XI II, part 2. 

SECTION XIV. 

***** 

1 *' For rocks, below, and tempests, sleep 
*' Insidious, o'er the glassy deep; 
"Nor leave an hour secure." 

2 To lift us from this abject, to sublime, 
This flux, to permanent ; this dark, to day ; 

b HFThe difference between an adname and a word in the simple pos- 
sessive case, is this : 

c An adname never denotes an objectdistinct and separate from the thing 
which the name represents ; as, a new book. The name book denotes one 
object, but the adname neiv does not denote another ; but merely shows a 
trait or qualit)' of the thing which the name book represents. So, when I 
say, 'this book is mme,' the name book denotes one object, but the adname 
this does not denote another; but merely particularizes the thing which the 
name book represents : yet, 

d {jc|=The name or substitute in the simple possessive case, always de- 
notes a person or thing distinct and separate from the one denoted by the 
name on which the possessive word depends; as, John's book — his book; 
Here the name book denotes one object of contemplation, and the word 
John's another, distinct or separate from that object. So is it with the word 
his — his book. The name book on which his depends, denotes one object 
of contemplation, and the possessive word his, another, entirely distinct and 
separate. [Let the learner study the foregoing note in all its parts, very 
carejully.'\ 

*A principal modifier derived from an adname, by adding ly, loses the ly 
when preceded by an auxiliar having ly as its last syllable ; as, He writes el- 
egantly — he writes remarkab/3/ elegant. 



t04 SYNTAX. [Diagrams and 

This foul, to pure ; this turbid, to serene;* 

This mean, to might}' ; [For this glorious end,t] 

Th' Almighty, rising, his long Sabbath broke. — Young. 

EXPLANATIONS I 

450>| 

tempests, over, j '. 

1 For 5 the glassy deep, sleep insidious, &c» 

rocks, below, | ; 

: ^m- J 1 

• -4^^ 

This is a condensed method of expressing that rocks sleep belotvthe deep, 
(or surface of the deep,) and that tempests sleep o'er, (over or above) the 
deep, and that both are insidious, treacherous or deceitful. Let the mid- 
dle horizontal line represent the deep : and the learner will see that the 
words are placed wiih respect to the line, so as to represent the relative pla- 
ces of the rocks and tempests themselves : the former being " below" the 
line, [as the deep,] and the latter " o'er" [or above] the line, as the represen- 
tative of "the deep:" the upper and the lower line, with the curve and in- 
dexes, leading from the names rocks and tempests, to the asserter sleeps, to 
show what the rocks and tempests do — the word insidious points back to 
the words rocks and tempests, being a modifying adname, [adverbial adjec- 
tive,] describing, like an adnarne, the character of the rocks and tempests, 
and, like a modifier, qualifying the fact of their sleeping. 

The asserter sleeps depends alike on both of the names in Italic, (or each 
of them individually :) Rule II, part 1 ; and the modifying adname insidi-^ 
OMS depends on each of the names in Italic: Rule XII, part 1 : while the 
name deep is in the objective case, from relation to each of the relatives be- 
low and over: Rule XIV, part I. 

2 The Almighty, rising, broke his long Sabbath to lift us 

f sublime ; permanent ; day ; pure ; serene ; mighty^ 
, , t k t h k k 

\ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 

(. this abject, this flux, this <?arA;,this/oM/, this turbid, i\i\B mean, 

Here from, shows the relation between the fact contemplated of the Al- 
mighty's lifting or raising us, and the several states or conditions indica- 
ted by the lower words in Italic; and each to in the brace shows the rela- 
tion between the fact of the Almighty's lifting us from the state indica- 
ted by the word below to, and the state indicated by the word above to, the 
state to which the Almighty lifts or raises us. Each of the lower words in 
Italic is in the direct objective case, from relation to the one word from;, 
and each of the upper words is in the direct objective case, from relation to 
its relative to. 

*The word serene is here used in the sense of clear or transparent, in 
contrast with turbid. 

fThe word end, meaning all the fact before mentioned, is in the objective 
case, depending on the relative /or ; Rule XIV, part 1. [See Rule IV, pt. ^] 



Transposition] syntax. 305 

SECTION XV. 

1 ♦' He was aware that his own troops were fatigued, yet that 
the enemy would renew the contest. 2 He therefore issued or- 
ders for the reassemblino; of his force where the late battle had 
been fought, and where he believed the enemy would attack him." 

EXPLANATIONS '. 

C that his own troops were fatigued, 
1 He was aware \ 1 

( that the enemy would renew the contest. 

Here each of the two that's, (simple connectives,) joins the sentence fol- 
lowing it to thie sentence he had heard, on the left of the brace : while the 
simple connective and is used only to join to each other, the two sentences 
at the right of the brace; these two have a common relation to the simple 
sentence before the brace. 

2 He therefore issued orders for the reassembling 
( where the late battle had been fought, 
of his force < | 

( where he believed the enemy would attack him. 

Here each w^ ere, as a modifying connective, joins the sentence at the 
right of the brace, to the sentence which precedes the brace : while the 
simple connective and unites the two simple sentences after the brace, both 
these having the same relation to the sentence before the brace. 

SECTION XYI. 

1 George purposes to attend school next summer. <#|} Where ? 

2 He has determined not to enter college. <^WIii/? 

EXPLANATIONS l 

1 Here it is seen that where refers to what is mentioned before it, and 
interrogates or questions in relation to place : Rule XVI. 

2 Here the word why refers to what is expressed by the sentence before 
it to which it refers : Rule XVI. 

SECTION XYIL 

1 William: has your father returned from the South .'' ^^Ves. 

2 Will he spend the winter at home, do you think ? -^iVb. 

EXPLANATIONS I 

1 Here yes gives an affirmative reply to the foregoing interrogation : 
Rule XVli. 

.2 Here no gives a negative answer to the question before it : Rule XVIL 

SECTION xvm. 

I viewed the change with sweet surprise, 
And ! I panted for the skies ; 
26* 



306 SYNTAX:. \Miscetlan6oiii 

Thanked Heaven that e'er I drew my breath, 
And triumphed in the thoughts of death. — Cotton. 

EXPLANATIONS I 

I viewed the change with sweet surprise ; 
C panted for the skies ; 
And !{^ I < thanked Heaven that ever I drew my breath, and 
, ( triumplied in the thoughts of death. 

Here the exclamation refers to the whole sentiment expressed by the 
words following it : Rule XVIII ; while each of the three asserters in Ital- 
ic depends on, and agrees with the direct subjective word /. The first 
and connects what follows O, with the sentence before it— [/ viewed, &c.3 



416 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 

In Transposition and Par sing ^ in which the learner is left chief- 
ly to the guidance of his own mind. 

EXAMPLE I. 

" Tis education forms the common mind, 
Just as the twig is bent, the tree's inclined." 

TRANSPOSED. 



It§i^ is ':#|}education{|i:5=' fomis the common -^^^mind, 
The tree is inclined just as the twig is bent. 

EXAMPLE II. 

" He that is slow to anger, is better than the mighty ; and he 
that ruleth his spirit, than he that taketh a city." 

TRANSPOSED. 

r-^ •• -^ 

1 He that^jff^is slow to anger, ) I o C than the mighty ; 

I / IS §: < 

2 he thatgi^^ ruleth his spirit, ) : ^ ( thanhethatlTtakethacity 

v^ "• -^ 

Here, (1) the whole phrase before the brace is the direct subjective of 
the second asserter is; and the phrase (2) is the indirect subjective ; yet in 
parsing the individual words, the first he must be regarded as the direct sub- 
jective word of the second is ; and the first that, the direct subjective of the 
first is; while the second he is the indirect subjective of the second is ; and 
the second that, the direct subjective of ruleth. The words mighty and 



ilxercises] syi^tAH. S07 

he, in the last brace, are indirect subjectives of the second is, and the word 
that in the last brace, the direct subjective of taketh. 
EXAMPLE III. 

Eternal spirit, God of Truth, 

— ^-^ to whom 

All things seem as they are, inspire my song ; 

My eye unscale; me, what is substance, teach, 

And shadow, what; while I, of things to come,* 

As past, rehearsing, sing the Course of Time, 

The second birth, and final doom of man. 

******* 

Me, thought and phrase severely sifting out 

The whole idea, grant, uttering as 'tis, 

The essential truth — time gone, the righteous saved. 

The wicked lost, and Providence approved .-^pollok. 



TRANSPOSED. 



Eternal Spirit, ^ unscale 



C inspii 

,, < unscc 

God of truth ; ( teach 

while I, rehearsing 

( to con 
of things 



mj songj 
mj eye, 
me 



r what 'I 
( what 3 




sing the Course of Time, 



( substance, 

( shadow ; 
the second birth 

final doom 



Grant 



thought ^ 
phrase } 



severely sifting out the whole idea, 



Utterinsf, as it is, the esse 



f time gone, 

.. 1 . ., j the righteous saved, 

ntial truth, < ,, • . . i . % 

{ the wicked lost, and 

(^ Providence approved. 

EXAMPLE IV. 



Death's joy, supreme, 

To bid the wretch survive the fortunate ; 
The feeble wrap the athletic in his shroud 
And weeping fathers build their children's 
Me, thine, Narcissa. — Young. 



tombs. 



TRANSPOSED. 

Death's joy, supreme, (or supreme joy,) ist 
C the wretch survive the fortunate ; 

1 the feeble wrap the athletic in his shroud; and 

to bid<[ Vfee-p'mg fathers ^ f their children's tombs ; 

I [ build { 

(^ me ) (_ thine — Narcissa. 

* To come, meaning /it^M/e, merely. fSee II, of remarks on parsing, p 225. 



308 SYNTAX. [Miscellaneous^ 

Here the word is is supplied to complete the sentence, (which was defec- 
tive) — the word joy is the subjective of i5, and all the words after is, con- 
sidered as a phrase, are the indirect subjective after is: Rule V, part 1. — 
The four words in Italic are each in the two-fold case. The words in 
SMALL CAPITALS are each in the objective case. The word thine is in 
the two-fold case: the possessive, and the objective depending on build: 
Rule VII, part 1. All of the asserters, except is, are in the dependent 
mode, first division. 

EXAMPLE V. 
" Shall human eyes, alone, dissolve in tears ? 
And none but human hearts in anguish bleed ?'* 

TRANSPOSED. 



: f human eyes, alone, dissolve in tears ? 
Shall ^ § 



none but human hearts bleed in anguish } 



Here the auxiliar shall is associated with each of the two principal as- 
serters, and each of these is parsed in connection with shall, as its own aux- 
iliar, just as though shall was not the auxiliar of the other. 

EXAMPLE VI. 

" If the wicked man shall turn from his wickedness, and do that 
which is right, he shall not die." 

TRANSPOSED. 

r turn from his wickedness, 1 [die. 

Ifthe wicked ??zaws^a//< | ]> he shall not 

(_ do that which is right, j 

Here, the auxiliar shall is associated with the two principals, in the same 
manner as in Example V. 

EXAMPLE VII. 

The theme, the joy, how then shall man sustain ? 

Oh the burst gates ! crushed sting ! demolished throne ! 

Last gasp ! of vanquished Death ! Shout, Earth and Heaven. — voung. 

TRANSPOSED. 

the theme .? 

the joj ^ 
burst gates ! '] 

rwiii crushed stinff ! ! . , ,^ , „, 

O^'^'i demolished throne ! ^fvanquishedDeathlShout. 

last gasp ! J 

EXAMPLE VIII. 

Religion's all. Descending from the skies 
To wretched man, the goddess, in her left, 
Holds out this world ; aad in her right, the next. — young. 



How then shall man sustain w. • ^ 




Exercises'] syntax. 809 

TRANSPOSED. 

Descending from the skies to wretched man, 

r ^^\n her left, 1 C this world. 

The goddess, < I > holds out } 

(^ ^c^m her right, 3 ( the next. 

The words left and right are adname substitutes; (each being substituted 
for the name hand) — meaning left hand — right hand. JVext, is also an ad- 
name substitute. 

EXAMPLE IX. 

'* The rogue and fool, by fits, is fair and wise ; 
And e'en the best, by turns, what they despise." 

TRANSPOSED. 



(rogue^^ ~} C 

The^ I \ by fits, Vare{ 

[fool, j{^ I ^wise; and 

Even the best,{jt^ by turns, 3 (_ -^l)!) what they despise. 

EXAMPLE X. 

-There see the buskined chief, 



Unshod, behind this momentary scene. 

Reduced to his own stature, low, or high. 

As vice or virtue sinks him, or sublimes. — young. 

TRANSPOSED. 

There see the buskined chief, &c. reduced to his own 




sublimes ^ 

> him. 



o 

sinks 



f high, 
stature < S 
(_low, 

EXAMPLE XL 

What conscience dictates to be done, 

Or warns me not to do, 
This, teach me more than Hell to shun. 

That, more than Heaven [^0*] pursue. 

TRANSPOSED. 

1 r dictates to be done, ) 2 ^ to^pursue that more than 

What conscience ) % > Teach me I 

f warns me not tadO, \ ^ to shun this more than Hell. 

Here the word ivhat is an indefinite substitute, and being read with con- 
science, and the words in the upper part of the first brace, is in the objec- 
tive case, from relation to dictates, and in the subjective, from relation to 
to be done — yet, 

Taken with the name conscience, and the words in the lower part of the 
*See II, of Remarks on Parsing, p 225. 



310 SYNTAX. [Miscellaneous 

first brace, it is, (still an indefinite substitute,) in the objective case from re- 
lation to to do. 

Teach is in the commanding mode absolute. Me and each phrase in the 
second brace, are in the objective case, direct, from relation to teach: Rule 
IX. 

Me, parsed separately, is in the objective case after teach: and the sub- 
jective before to shun and to pursue. 

To shun, parsed individually, depends on me and teach; and to pursue 
depends on me and teach. [See^and gg, p 109] 

This, means what is expressed by the words in the lower part of the 
first brace, and before the brace, ( What conscience loarns me not to do :) 
according to Rule IV, part 4 ; and is in the objective case, from relation to 
to shun. Hell, is joined by more than to this, and is in the same case. 

That, is parsed, in relation to the words in the upper part of the brace, 
and before the brace, and in relation to to pursue, m the same general man- 
ner as the word this : and Heaven is parsed in relation to to pursue, like 
Hell in relation to to shun. 

EXAMPLE XII. 

I ate the orange which Henry brought from Utica. 



My father gave it tome. 

Here the word it is a substitute for all the words in the brace, and repre- 
sents the fruit which is particularly described by all the words in the brace. 

EXAMPLE XIII. 

1° , r . . > which enabled him to pay all his debts. 
goods at a lair price, j ^ -' 

Here the word which, is a substitute for the words in both lines of the 
brace, and a representative of the whole fact described ; for it was this 
whole fact which enabled George to pay his debts. 

EXAMPLE XIV. 

^i^ -> 

', ( entereth not by the door of the sheep-fold, ^ : 

He that < I /the same 

( climbeth up [climbeth in] some other way, ) 
is a thief and a robber. 

Here the adname substitute, the same, is the direct subjective word of is, 
and the whole phrase before the last brace is the indirectsubjective : while 
in parsing the individual words, he, as limited in sense by that, and all the 
words between the braces, is the indirect subjective, explaining what is 
meant by the same ; and the connective substitute that is the direct subjec- 
tive of entereth and climbeth. [The word up is wrongly used ; for if a 
person climbs, he cViaihs up! or ascends; of course ; as we do not climb 
down. ] 



Exercises] syntax. 311 

EXAMPLE XV. 

( whom I saw in the city , yesterday, ^ 
The man < | ( him, my father has 

( whom George met this morning, ) known for years. 

Here the word him is the direct objective of has known, and the whole 
phrase before the last brace, (as also the name man, as limited by the other 
words,) is the indirect objective word, being used to show whom the word 
him means. 

EXAMPLE XVL 
" Some angel guide my pencil while I draw 
What nothing else than angel can exceed, 
A man on earth, devoted to the skies, 
Like ships at sea, while in, above the world." 

TRANSPOSED. 

Some angel guide my pencil while I draw 

What nothing \ , \ an angel can exceed, 

C 1 on earth, devoted to the skies, 
I r above, "] 

A man \ 2 while <j in, • • • • |> the world ; like ships at sea. 

But is a better English relative than else than. While, a modifying 
connective, joins the word mas taken with ' the world,' to the word a- 
bove, as taken with ' the world,' just as much as though the words the 
world were twice used. The modifying influence oi while is derived from 
its reference to in, as taken with ' the world,' and exerts its influence, thus 
derived, on the meaning of the word above, as taken with ' the world :^ 
showing that what I draw, the man, as characterized, is above the world, zX 
the same time that he is in the world. 

EXAMPLE XVIL 
"He that holds fast the golden mean,* 
And lives contentedly between 
The little and the great, 
Feels not the wants that pinch the poor. 
Nor plagues that haunt the rich man's door, 
Imbit'ring all his state." 

TRANSPOSED. 

r^^ • N 

\ C HOLDS fast the golden mean, C ( the little^ ; 

He { that ^ | } between ) | ifeels—^ 

( LIVES contentedly ( ( the great J I 

-- ^-^* 

j ( wants that(^ pinch the poor, 

*- not the } % 

( plagues that{ji^ haunt the rich man's door, embitter- 
ing all his «te^. 

*The middle state or condition of life. 



312 SYNTAX. [Miscellaneous 

EXAMPLE XVIII. 

Father of light : to thee I call : 

My soul is dark within : 
Thou, who dost mark the sparrow's fall, 

Avert the death of sin. 
Thou, who dost guide each wandering star. 
Who calm'st the elemental war, 

Whose mantle is yon boundless sky; 
My thoughts, my words, my crimes, forgive ; 
And since I now must cease to live, 

teach me how to die. — byron. 

TRANSPOSED. 

Father of light : I call to thee : 
My soul is dark within : 

r-0#= — ^ [of sin. 

Thou,-^ *WH0 (ji^^DosT MARK the sparrow's fallj } avert the death 

^m-' -. 

: C *whoOC|=dost guide each wandering star, ) : (my thoughts, 
ThouJ *whoO:3=-calmst the elemental war, >fo)-give<^ my words, 

( whose mantle {Jc|=" is yon boundless sky ; ) : § ( my crimes; nve 

• -~since 1 now must cease lo 

teach me how to die. 



CLOSING REMARKS 

ON CORRECTION, TRANSPOSITION, PARSING, &C. 

417 If there are not words enough in any sentence to make 
the sense complete, supply the words which other parts of the dis- 
course may show really belong in the sentence ; that is, correct 
the sentence, by supplying the real defects ; as, 

" When Adam thus to Eve " This would be nonsense, for there is 

nothing to show whether Adam went thus to Eve — or spoke thus to Eve. 
We have to read other sentences to leavn what this phrase means. Then 
supply what is necessary to complete the sentence, and parse, as a part of 
the sentence, what you put in ; as, " When Adam said thus to Eve," &c. — 
This makes complete, what w^as before defective. 

418 If there are too many words in the sentence, reject the 
superfluous ones ; as, 

What went ye out for to see ? I went home in order to see John. — 
Here it is seen that for., and in order, are superfluous words, words which 

*The place of loho, as here used, and its relation to the asserter follow- 
ing it, illustrate a principle in the construction of sentences: that the con- 
nective substitute, in the simple subjective case, direct, is always the sub- 
jective of the next following asserter, when no other subjective comes be- 
tween this substitute and the asserter. 



Ea:eicise3] syntax, 313 

add nothing: to the sense or elegance of their respective sentences. These 
words, therefore, should not be parsed, but expunged — thrown out, and the 
rest of the respective sentences be parsed. 

419 If there are wrong words in the sentence, and the other 
parts of the sentence show what is meant, reject the wrong words 
and supply their places with right ones ; as, 

" Whether o( ihe twain did the will of his father?" "Our Father, 
which art in Heaven " He wentupinfo a mountain. Corrected — Which 
of the ^M.'odid, &c. Our Father if^Ao art in Heaven. He went wpo/i a moun- 
tain. 

420 Tf there are not as many words as the idiom of the lan- 
guage^ {good and established usage,) requires, (though enough to 
express all the ideas intended,) put in words enough to complete 
the sentence as a perfect English sentence ; and parse what you 
put in ; as, 

James was seen — go home. Helen was heard — express her preference 
of the society of persons older than herself, from whose conversation she 
could derive advantage. Here, though in each sentence there are words 
enough to express the ideas intended, there are not enough to render the 
sentence elegant, and make it agree with the English irfzom, or good usage. 
Then supply what words are necessary to perfect the sentences. ' James 
was seen to go home.' ' Helen was heard to express her preference,' &c. 
This makes the sentences complete— makes them stand as they should stand 
— as they should be parsed. 

421 In transposing, find first the leading or important asserter 
and the subjective word on which the asserter depends, if the as- 
serter is not in the commanding mode absolute. 

4'?2 Parse the subjective word and the asserter according to 
what they are, and their relation to each other ; and the other 
words according to wh^t they are, and their relation to each other, 
and to the subjective word and leading asserter. 

423 When an asserter in the indefinite tense of the dependent 
mode, second division, is used, with any of the variations of ain 
or be, to express only one fact or event, let the two parts be pars- 
ed as one asserter ; as, 

James loas always trying some new scheme. 

424 When, however, the asserter, in this mode and tense, is 
used for the purpose of qualification or explanation, and joined, with 
its attendant words, to the sentence before expressed, it is to be 
parsed as a separate asserter ; as, 

James was never idle ; always trying some new scheme. 

425 {^Be sure to learn the meaning of every word in a sen- 
tence before you begin to parse the individual words composing 
the sentence. 

27 



314 SYNTAX. [Miscellaneous, 8fc.} 

426 5(^=>Bft sure to see the extent of the relations which any 
"Word sustains to the other words of the sentence, before you be- 
gin to parse the word. 

427 Remember that a name or a substitute frequently sustains 
several relations to the other words of a sentence ; the same word 
being sometimes found in the subjective case, after being found in 
the objective ; and sometimes found in the objective case, after 
being found in the subjective ; as, 

1 The traveller spoke of a castle in the midst of the forest, and on a 
hill, inhabited by only one man, a hermit, and the last of his family. 2 
More fruit was left at my house than I can use this winter.* 

428 Remember that when several asserters are joined by con- 
nectives and refer, by that connection, to the same name or sub- 
stitute, the name or substitute is not to be parsed in the two-fold 
case, [see 1, Section II, p 292,] but that 

429 When one of two asserters, depending on the subjective 
word, is in the dependent mode, and the other in one of the oth- 
er modes, the subjective word is said to be in the two-fold case: 
[see the name goddess, Example VIII, p 308.] 

430 Remember that a modifier expressing merely a circum- 
stance in reference to the person or thing mentioned, may be so u- 
sed as to qualify the sense expressed by only a name or substitute. 

I was an early advocate of libraries. Their jestablishment gener- 
ally I thought would prove a great benefit to the people. I was anxious 
that John should return. He, here, would be a great comfort to his pa- 
rents ; though there, he would be only a source of uneasiness. 

431 Remember that any word used as a word, merely, or only 
to represent the combination of letters or combinations of sounds, 
is a particular name ; as, 

A book. A is an adname, belonging to the name book. Here the word 
^ is used as a particular name to distinguish this word from all other words. 

432 (^Remember, as the particular office of each of the ten 
parts of speech is clearly defined, and as a word usually belong- 
ing to one part of speech, sometimes takes the place of another 
part of speech, you are to parse it as it is, according to its office, 
(if rightly used,) in the place in which it is found t 

*Here (1) the name castle is first found in the objective case, from rela- 
tion to of: Rule XIV, part 1 — and then in the subjective from relation to 
theasserter inhabited: Rule I, part 1 — (making the two-fold case.) 

Next (2) the name fruit is first found in the subjective case from rela- 
tion to was left: Rule I, part 1— and then in the objective case from rela- 
tion to can use: Rule VII, part 1. 

fTo a person sitting beside me, and engaged in debate with me, I may 



{Synthesisl syntax. 315 

REMARKS, DIRECTIONS, &c. 

a Od^^^'hi'e, as author^ the writer of this work claims, as a principle in- 
cluded in his copy-right, the invention of diagrams to indicate the vari- 
ous relations of words and ideas to each other, he reconr\mends to the teach- 
er oi Grammar to arrange in diagrams, on the black-board, (in the manner 
of the diagrams in this book,) all the more complex sentences which may 
occur in his parsing and reading lessons. 

b Od^The pupil should be early taught to construct diagrams, and explain 
the bearings and relations of words in sentences. 

c O^The learner should make himself familiar with every thing found in 
Etymology, and the preceding part of Syntax : he will then find little dif- 
ficulty in parsing the words of any correct sentence which may be given 
him. 

d 9^5=* When the learner has become familiar with the preceding part of 
the Grammar, he should remember, that although the more difficult part of 
his task, (as a student of Grammar,) is accomplished, yet that all this will 
avail him but little, unless he proceeds to familiarize himself with what fol- 
lows : |]C|=for it is chiefly to prepare him for what is to come^ that the pre- 
ceding part is given. 



SYIVTHETIC AL PRIIVCIPLES and RULES, 
Used as guides in Composition.* 

433 I. ^(^Mark well and distinctly the ideas which you 
would express. 

II. ^r^^Mark the relation which you wish to represent as ex- 
isting between the ideas, when taken in connection- 
Ill. ^t^Choose, with care, such words to express your ideas 
as will express those, and no others ; their relation to, dependence 
on, and connection with, each other : and then 

I^- ^^Arrano;e and combine the words in such a manner as 
will express the ideas in all their relations, connections, and de- 
pendencies, without doing violence to the individual meaning of 
the words. 

V. (jf^^Be sure to arrange the words so as to express the ideas 
to be conveyed in the strongest manner possible. 

say, • ComCy come; you are only jesting. You are too well informed not 
to know better than that.' Here the words come — comCy are mere excla- 
mations, though they are generally employed asasserters. See ' Accommo- 
datives,* 357, p 215. 

*Let the 'earner turn, at once, to the Seven General Principles, as giv- 
en in the fore part of the book. See numbers from 12 to 27, inclusive, 



316 SYNTAX. [Synthesu 

iPTAMES— NOUNS. 
I. Primary Distinctions. 

GENERAL, PARTICULAR, COLLECTIVE, AND ASSERTIVE. 

434 RULE I. When a general name is used to char- 
acterize or describe a particular person or thing, the name 
must be written without a capital letter, the same as though 
used for ordinary purposes ; as, 

John is th8 5^a^of his aged parents.* Cincinnati is the g-wem of the West.f 

435 RULE IL When a particular name is used as a 
general name, to describe or particularize some person or 
thing, it should be written with a capital letter, the same as 
though used as a particular name ; as, 

Clay was the Cicero of the Senate. Bonaparte was regarded as the Ccb- 
sar of his age. The paclcet John Adams will sail in a few days. 

436 RULE IIL Use a collective name to represent the 
individual members composing the collection whenever the 
collective name can clearly represent the ideas intended ; as, 

The council could not agree among themselves as to what means should 
be adopted. The assembly were undetermined how to act. The family 
were all sick. a 

a Such expressions are better than. The members of the council could 
not agree, &c. The members of the assembly were, &c. The members of 
the family were all sick. By our mtroducing the general name, (as mem- 
bers, and the like,) and the words ofthe^ the expression becomes weakened. 

437 RULE IV. A collective name used to represent the 
individuals comprising the collection, not the 7nere collec-. 
tion^ as a whole^ requires the plural form of the substitute 
and the asserter referring to it ; as. 

The family were all well when I visited them. The cabinet were early 
apprized of the intentions of the President, who had sent them a message 
desiring their attendance at an early hour. The banditti, overpowered by 
numbers, were induced, by the hope of pardon, to surrender themselves. a 

a The bearing of this rule does not affect asserters in the commanding, or 
the dependent mode.| 

*When a general name is used by personification as a particular name, it 
should begin with a capital letter, like any other particular name ; as, ' Fair 
Hope who points to future bliss.* [See Rhetoric for particulars on this sub-, 
ject.] 

fThe term West is here used, like any particular name, to distinguish a 
particular district or section. This term, therefore, should be written with 
a capital letter, in the same manner as the particular names of rivers ; as, 
the Hudson^ the Thames. 

X When the singular or plural fprm. g( the asserter i^ pi.eqti.Ofted, it CX^ans 



— Aame«] syntax. 317 

438 RULE "V. A collective name used to represent the 
individuals comprising tlie collection, not the entire mass 
or collection, as a whole, requires who, rather than which, as 
its connective substitute, if persons or superior beings are 
meant ; as, 

The family ivhom I visited were just recovering from protracted illness. 

439 RULE VL A collective name used to represent the 
entire mass or collection as one, not as individually consid- 
ered, requires the singular form of the substitute and assert- 
er referring to it ; as, 

Tlie entire regiment was taken. Its commandant had already surrender- 
ed himself. The whole family was destroyed by the plague. The congre- 
gation was dismissed. The 7nob v:as dispersed, 

410 RULE Vn. A collective name used to represent the 
mass or collection as one, requires which rather than who as 
its connective substitute ; as, 

It was the tenth regiment which was taken. The moh which had been 
dispersed, reassembled. I visited the house of the family whichhdid been 
destroyed by the plague. 

441 RULE VIII. Use an assertive name in expressing 
any fact to be mentioned, rather than a name more abstract 
in its character ; as, 

John's selling his farm, was his first step towards ruin. By withdrawing 
ourselves from society, wemay avoid some of the evils, but shall lose much 
of the happiness, of life. We injure ourselves and others by contracting 
debts which we have not the means to pa}. a 

a Such expressions are more direct, are stronger and more elegant, than 
to say, ' John's sale of his farm,' &c. ' By the luithdrawal of ourselves,' 
&c. * We injure ourselves and others by the contraction of debts,' &c. 

442 RULE IX. An assertive name, derived from a tran- 
sitive asserter, and ending in ing, must have some specify- 
ing adname (not numeral,) before it, if it has the relative 
of immediately after it ; as, 

The opening of the new road was postponed. The reading of the Bible 
should yield instruction to all. Any withdrawing of one's self from socie- 
ty is an infringement of the social compact : and, 

443 RULE X. If the assertive name, thus derived, and 
ending thus, has the, or any indefinite specifying adname 

only one of these two distinctions, as contrasted with the other. The com- 
mon form of the asserter may be used with a singular or plural subjective 
word : See 207, p 125. 

27* 



before it, the relative of should occur between the name and 
the following objective word ; as, 

The reproving of the delinquent in public, was delayed. Some organi- 
zing of the band had become necessary. All training of the militia was 
auspended : but, 

444 RULE XL If the assertive name, thus derived, and 
ending thus, has, before it, and depending on it, a word in 
the possessive form and case, the relative should be omit- 
ted ; as, 

George's reading the debates, bewildered, but did not instruct him. Hel- 
en's visiting her parentSj relieved them of their distress. My reading the 
daily news, had become a habit. 

445 RULE XIL An assertivename, ending in m^,and 
accompanied by other words, (the combination being in the 
independent case,) should precede the sentence that the 
phrase is used to explain or refer to ; as, 

Generally speaking, there is more intelligence than virtue among man* 
kind. Speaking personally of the matter, I believe James and Henry 
were the ones chiefly to blame:* yet, 

446 RULE XIIL An assertive name, formed by the u- 
nion of the word to with the primary form of the asseiter, 
or the word &e, (as, to love^ to live, to be, (fee.) may be used 
with its attendant words before, or after, or amidst the sen- 
tence that it is used to explain or refer to ; as. 

To confess the truth, I was in fault. To be plam with you, I do think 
you were unfair in your dealings. I was ill prepared, (so to speak,) to 
meet so strong an opposition. 

//. Distinctions with respect to Sex. 

AA7 RULE Xiy. A masculine name, used to represent 
a male creature, and not associated with a name of a dif- 
ferent class, may be followed and represented only by a mas- 
culine or a common substitute ; as. 

The boy lost his book. James and Henry took their umbrella and left. 

448 RULE XV. A masculine name, associated with a 
feminine or a common name, may be followed and repre- 
sented by a common substitute, denoting persons, or a neu- 
ter substitute, denoting inferior animals ; as. 

Every father and wo/Aer should superintend, carefully, the education of 
*Tq blame is here parsed as a mere adnamet like biamable. 



—M'ames] SYr?TAX. Slj>» 

their children. A hroiher or a sister should not forget their respective ob- 
ligalions. Every man having an ox or an ass, killed it, to prevent its be' 
ing seized by the garrison.* 

449 RULE XVI. A feminine name, used to represent a 
female creature, and not associated with a name of a dif- 
ferent class, may be followed and represented only by a fem- 
inine, or a common substitute ; as, 

Helen selected, for herself, a book ;• and for her friend, a needle case. — 
Mothers should instruct thnr children in the relations and duties of life. 

450 RULE XVIL A feminine name, associated with a 
masculine, or a common name, may be follow^ed and rep< 
resented by a common substitute, denoting persons, and by 
a neuter substitute, denoting inferior animals ; as, 

Every male, and every female, was required to take home their books 
for evening lessons.* " The ox or the sheep, had it been killed, would have 
been saved from seizure, for the use of the lamily." 

451 RULE XVIIL A common name, denoting persons, 
t»r superior beings, may be followed and represented by a 
masculine, a feminine, or a common substitute, according to 
the nature of the person or thing to be represented ; as, 

My friends commenced ^AfiV journey early in the morning. The teach- 
er was returning from school when I met him. My youngest child will 
spend a few days at her uncle's : but, 

452 RULE XIX. If a common name is used to repre- 
sent an infant, or beings inferior to man, it should be repre- 
sented by a common or a neuter substitute; a:^, 

The infant was well when I saw it. The cruel boy fired at the bird, and 
killed it. I saw the horse where it had fallen from the bridge. 

453 RULE XX. A masculine, feminine, or common 
name, (singular or plural.) may be used in the subjective 
case, indirect, in relation to an asserter which has the neu- 
ter substitute zY, as its direct subjective word ; as, 

It was John that I met. It is Hannah whom I wish to see. ItwzsSeth 
and Mary that I invited- It was my former friends that deserted me. — 
[So, also, It was the orange that Jane bought.] 

454 RULE XXI. A neuter name, used to represent a 
neutral thing, should be followed and represented only by a 
neuter, or a common substitute ; as, 

*See notes *a, b, c, (more especially Cj) p 79. Also, notes J, p 51—*, p 
52, and f a and b, p 52. 



320 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

I bought an orange and gave it to Gustavus. He had some apples, but 
he gave them to me. 

Names of Genuses* or Classes of Animals.f 

455 A name, representing a whole genus, race, or class of an- 
imals, and including both sexes, may have the masculine, femi- 
nine, or neuter substitute, according to the following rules. 

456 RULE XXII. The names man, elephant, horse, 
dog\ and the larger, and more cunning, and terrible of an- 
imals, either beasts, birds, reptiles, or fishes, have the mas- 
culine substitute; as, 

« Man's days are a hand's breadth, and his age is as nothing before thee.* 
*Thou hast made man^a. little lower than the angels. Thou hast crowned 
him with honor and glory.' The elephant is terrible in his anger. ♦ Hast 
thou given strength to the hurse ? Hast thou clothed his neck with thun- 
der V The dog prefers the company of his master to that of his own spe- 
cies. a 

a The following list comprises most of the additional animals mentioned 
and represented according to this rule : 

C Lion Bear Fox Eagle Hawk Whale 

The^ Tiger Wolf Ass Vulture Owl Shark 

^Leopard Panther Hog Crane Peacock Alligator or 

Crocodile, and the various reptiles of the serpent kind. 

457 RULE XXin. Names of the larger, and the milder 

kinds of animals, not mentioned above, have the feminine 

substitute ; as, 

The sheep gives her own garment to reward her benefactor. The dove 
proves herself the fit emblem of peace. a 

a The following list comprises most of the additional animals that are 
mentioned and represented according to this Rule. 

rp, ( Cat Goose Swan Linnet 

^"^^Hare Robin Swallow Cuckoo. 

458 RULE XXIV. General classes of animals, not 
mentioned, referred to by Rules XXII and III, are represen- 
ted, (after being named,) by the neuter substitute it, when 
the race or whole class, (male and female,) is meant; as. 

The turtle is an amphibious animal. It lays z75 eggs in the sand, and 
leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. The squirrel is a nim- 
ble little creature. It lays up its stores in fall, for winter. 

* The author prefers the English plural of this word, to the Latin plural. 

fThe names mentioned under this head are, by some, called epicene 
names or nouns, [from the Greek epikoinos, meaning common to both sex- 
es.] The author, unwilling to employ, unnecessarily, words not in com- 
mon use, has chosen the course here pursued. 



—Aawies] syntax. S2i 

459 Corresponding Names. 
Creator creature jyiot^er i ^°" 



Rule 



Sovereign 
Parent 

Father 



people I daughter School teacher 

citizens Teacher 1 School master j , , ^ 

subjectf Tutor | School mistress }> ""^^^ 



Parent child Tutress } pupilt Preceptor | P P • 

son Instructor | Preceptress J 

daughter Instructress J 



Superscription of Letters to Married Ladies.^ 

460 RULE XXV. In superscribing, to a married lady^ 
a letter concerning the ordinary affairs of life, write, (with 
the feminine prefix,) her husband's christian name, rather 
than her own ; as, 

Mrs. George Washington, Mount Vernon^ VirginialT — yet, 

* Sovereigns are sometimes called monarchs, kings or queens, emperors or 
empresses : the word subject is the corresponding term of each of these. 

t Subject is a term used in reference to a person under a monarchical gov- 
ernment, and citizen in reference to an inhabitant of the United States. 

X Any one that learns, from another's instruction, is a pupil; but the one 
taught at school, only, is a scholar, in this corresponding sense. [Any one, 
hook-wise, may be termed a scholar. ] Teachers are often heard to speak of 
their children! as though the teachers were severally the parents of their 
entire schools ! 

II By speaking of my hoy or girl, I do not represent the person mention- 
ed as my child — my son, or daughter. I may mean only a young person 
under my charge : but when I speak of my child, oi my son, or daughter, 
I represent myself a^ the parent of the one mentioned. Child, son, and 
daughter are sometimes used merely as terms of fondness or tenderness, in 
speaking to a young person. 

§ The superscription of a letter is the name of the person to whom the 
letter is to be sent, or the name of the person and the place of his residence, 
or where he lodges, written on the outside of the letter. 

Ha This departure from the ordinary use of names has its origin in the 
fact, that by marriage, a woman's surname is exchanged for that of her hus- 
band. 

h The great advantage of this mode of superscribing letters, is seen in the 
fact, that, as the christian names of men, from their business transactions, 
are more extensively known than the christian names of their wives ; let- 
ters intended for the wives are less liable to be miscarried when superscri- 
bed with the husband's christian names, than they would be if superscribed 
with the christian names of the ivivts. 

c Besides, as no two living children of the same parents have the same; 
christian names, and as two brothers of the same family may marry women 
vi" different surnames, but of the same christian names, two sisters-in-law 



S22 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

461 RULE XXVI. If the letter relates to the business 
or profession of the lady, as authoress, or editress, as an act 
of courtesy and propriety, you should write her own chris- 
tian name; as, 

Mrs. Lydia H. Sigourney, Hartford, Conn. Mrs. Sarah Jane Hale, Bos- 
ton, Mass — also; 

462 RULE XXYII. In superscribing a letter to a wnd- 
ow, use, (with the matron prefix, Mrs.) her own christian 
name, rather than that of her late husband ; as, 

After the death of George "Washington, a letter to his widow would have 
been superscribed, Mrs. Martha Washington, Mount Vernon, Virginia.* 

(Jc^For further particulars, see '' Inscription, Subscription, and 
Superscription," under " IV, Distinctions with respect to Num- 
ber," hereafter given. 

III. Distinctions of Person.t 

463 RULE XXVIII. A name or substitute may be u- 
sed to show who or what is meant by a simple substitute of 
the first, second, or third person ; as, 

" I, the Lord thy God, am with thee. / am the Lord thy God." " / 
am /ifi whom ye seek." /, your Jro^Aer, ad vise you to attend school. Thou 
art my friend. Ye are brethren. 

464 RULE XXIX. In addressing, by name, a person 
or thing, and affirming something, or asking a question con- 
cerning the one addressed, we must use a substitute for the 
name : [the name being in the independent case;] as, 

Plato ; thou reasonest well. James: why did you go home so early last 
night ? 

465 RULE XXX. A name of the third person may be 

may have the same name throughout. Thus, George Clinton may have 
married Matilda Davis, and James Clinton, the brother of George, may 
have married Matilda Andrews. Then there would be two Mrs. Matilda 
Clintons : yet but one Mrs. George Clinton, and one Mrs. Jaynes Clinton, 
d There are contingencies in which it is necessary, for distinction's sake, 
to add to the name of the husband the term indicating his business or pro- 
fession ; as, Mrs. Rev. James R. Boyd. 



* For a time after the death of the husband, it might be well in some in- 
stances to indicate more particularly the lady to whom the letter is to be 
sent, by adding widow or relict, and the name of the late husband ; as, jWr.9. 
Jane E. Henderson^ Widow of the late George Henderson, Geneva, N. Y. 

t A name is never of the first person, though it is often associated with a 
substitute which is. 



—jYames] syntax. 323 

used exclamatorily or interrogativel}^ ia the independent 
case, and be followed by a substitute meaning the same per- 
son or thing ; as, 

Why George/ I thought yow were at school. James: I saw Henry Wil- 
liams this morning. '• Henry Williams ? why I thought he was in Eu- 
rope." ** Our fathers — where are they?" 

466 RULE XXXI. When a phrase or sentence, of con- 
siderable length, comes between a subjective word and its 
dependent asserter,or between an objective word and theas- 
serter or relative on which it depends, the word should be 
repeated, or its substitute used ; as. 

The man whose lofty spirit and pure christian principles are a full re- 
straint from meanness of purpose or action, that man can be trusted with 
safety. The lady whom I saw this morning, and to whom you sent the 
card of invitation last evening, she is Jane's instructress. a 

a This repetition, or the use of the substitute, is necessary for the force 
or emphasis of the expression. The mind becomes diverted from the lead- 
ing or important word, by the great number of words, used in particular- 
izing the person or thing mentioned ; and the repetition of the name, 
or the use of the substitute, is necessary, to call back the mind of the hear- 
er or reader to the important word. [See Example XIV, p 310 ; and Ex- 
ample XV, p 311.] 

467 RULE XXXn. A name, either of the second or 
third person, should never be followed by a substitute mean- 
ing the same person or thing, and having the same relation 
to the same sentence, except as mentioned in Rule XXXI; as, 

James, he went home last night. Helen, she attends school this winter. 
Harriet; do yoM come here. John: go thou home. Oh God; moke thou 
me a clean heart ; and renew thou a right spirit within me. Lord ; heal 
thoume. Qcf^Omit the substitutes in the foregoing, and all similar sentences.a 

a The language should be, ' James went home.' ' Helen attends school,' 
&c. ' Harriet ; come here' — (or pathetically,) ' Harriet ; do come here.' 
' John ; go home.' ♦ God ; make me a clean heart, and renew a right 
spirit within me.' « Lord ; heal me.' 

IV. Distinctions with respect to Number. 

[^iS^Regular names, and Irregular names of certain classes, 
are treated of in Etymology. See pp 56-7-8.] 

J. (f, or /e— see 117, p 58. 

,. ° , , . ,. . J //—see 118, p 58. 

I or the plural of names ending m ^^ ^.^^ ^^ the syllable i.,prece< 

(^ ded by the sound of 5— see 119, p 58., 



324 



[Synthesis 



Singular. 
Arcanum a 
Apex 

Automaton 

Bandit 

Batteau 

Beau 

Beef 

Brother [a mem- 
ber of a religious 
society] 

Brother [a mem- 
ber of any other 
society, or of a 
family of chil- 
dren] 

Cantharis > 

Cantharidis ) 

Child 

Cherub 

Criterion 

Datwm 

Desideratum 

Effluvium _ 

Effluvia d 

Encomium < 

Erratum < 

Focus } 

Foot 

Genus < 

Genius [an imagi- 
nary spirit] 

Genius [a person 
of acute and pecul 



469 TABLE OF THE IRREGULAR NAMES, 

(A''ot before described.] ) 
Plural. Singular. 

Goose 



arcana 

apexes 

aptces 

automatons 

automata 

bandits b 

banditti b 

batteaus 

batteaua: 

beaus 

beaua: 

beeves c 

hveXhren 



brothers 



cantharic?es 

children 

cherubs 

cherubim 

criterions 

criteria 

data 

desideratum* 

desiderata 



encomiums 

encomia 

erratums 

errata 

focuses 

foci 

feet 

genuses 

genera 

genii 

geniuses 
iar mind,] 



Ignisfatuus 

Index [ad-] 

Index [in Mathe- 
matics] 

Lamina 

liouse 
Man 
Wo-man 
Freeman e 

Memorandum 

Mouse 

Mr. [Mister]/ 

Ox 

Phenomenon 

Radius 

Stamen 

Stamina [solidity 
of character] o/- 



Plural. 

geese 

ignisfatuuses 

ignisfatui 

indexes 

indices 

laminas 

lamincB 

lice 

men 

wo-men 

freemen e 

memorandum* 

memoranda 

mice 

Messrs. I^P^^"*^ 

(Messieurs 

oxen 

C phenomenon* 

( phenomena 

C radiuses 

\ radii 

C stamens 

\ stamina 



ways singular. 
Seraph 

Stimulus 

Stratum 

Tooth 

Vertex 



Vortex 

Vertebre 
Vertebra 
Verteber 

Virtuoso 



seraphs 
seraphim g" 

Cstimuluses 

^stimuli 

C stratums 

\ strata 
teeth 

C vertexes 

\ vertices 
% C vortexes 

\ vortices 

vertebras 

C virtuosos h 
I virtuosi h 



t Where two plurals are given, the first is deemed preferable, because 
plainer to the common people, or to the mind of the mere English scholar. 

a Arcanwm — the singular is now obsolete ; the plural, arcana, only, be- 
ing used. — \_For JVotes 6, c, d, e,/, g-, ^, see the next page.'] 



— JVames] syntax. S2B 

DEFECTIVE NAMES. 

470 First Class — those which are used only in the singular 
form and singular sense, in ordinary representation of things : 

The names of different kinds 

I. Of Metals; as, Gold, silver, copper, zinc, iron, lead, &c. 

II. Of Drugs ; as. Opium, arsenic, sulphur, magnesia, &c. 

III. Of Spirits, (distilled) ; as, Alcohol, rum, gin, brandy, &c. 

IV. Of Wines ; as, Champagne, Madeira, Oporto, (port,) &c. 

V. Of Spices ; as, Pepper, ginger, cinnamon, &c. [except nut- 
meg, which has the regular plural, (nutmegs,) and c/oues, which 
is always plural] — yet, 

471 ^^^ These names, when used, respectively, to repre- 
sent different divisions or sorts of the same individual kinds, are 
frequently pluralized ; as, The different leads, irons, opiums, su- 
gars, brandies, &c. [The foregoing must be regarded only as 
general hints or remarks, to which there are exceptions.] 

472 Names denoting particular states, or qualities, not actions, 
and ending in 

L ion; as, Civilization, dejection, fruition, nutrition, &c. 

II. ance ; as, elegance, abundance, endurance, indignance, &c. 

III. ence ; as, abstinence, continence, despondence, obedience, &c. 

[jYotes b, c, d, e,f, g, h, brought from the preceding page."] 
b Bandit^ the singular, is pluralized bandits when meaning several of the 
persons, separately or singly considered ; as, Several of the bandits were 
arrested — but banditti, when meaning the company collectively consider- 
ed ; as, The banditti was composed of outlaws from various nations. They 
were rendered desperate by despair. 

c Beeves is used to represent, not \hefiesh of cattle, but the cattle them- 
selves, intended for slaughter. 

d Effluviwm and effluvia, as English words, are both used in the singu- 
lar sense ; though in Latin, effluvia requires the plural form of the asserter. 
e The words man and woman are pluralized in the same manner, when 
joined with other words, (as compounds,) as when used separately. 

/ The prefix term of address, Mr. meaning Mister, is pluralized, JWes.9rs. 
{Misters, or Messieurs,) but the nzme Master is regularly pluralized. Mas- 
ters. 

g The im, in seraphim and cherubm, is the Hebrew plural termination. 
The English plural is sometimes improperly added to the Hebrew plural ; 
as, " On cherubs and on serajihiniS, full royally he rode." See I Samuel, 
iv, 4—11 Sam. vi, 2— Psalm, Ixxx, 1— Isaiah, vi, 2 and 6. 

h Virtuosos is the ordinary plural : but the term virtuost is used to de- 
note a class or an association ; as, ' He was one of the virtuosi of the age.' 
28 



326 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

IV. cy ; as, lunacy, fluency, pertinency, corpulency, &c. 

V. ity; as, profundity, ubiquity, serenity, severity, prolixity, &c. 

VI. ment ; as, contentment, resentment, confinement, &c. 

VII. ness ; as, blackness, whiteness, [see note 5, p 58,1 &c. 

VIII. ship ; as, guardianship, generalship, authorship, &c. 

IX. ude ; as, gratitude, lassitude, fortitude, quietude, &c. 

X. ure ; as, nurture, portraiture, &c. 

473 Names of particular sciences, professions, and crimes, end- 
ing in y ; as. 

Physiognomy Phrenology Anatomy Theology 

Geology Physiology Geography Philology 

Bigamy Polygamy Burglary Perjury, &c. 

474 The following names of feelings, passions and emotions ; as. 

Sympathy 

Reserve 

Hate 



Pride Anger 
Haughtiness Dread 
Contempt Revenge 


Friendship 

Disdain 

Love 


475 The following names : 
Wealth Wrath Deceit 
Worth Honor Zenith 


Nadir 
Horizon 



Knowledge 
Guilt, 
the cardinal points ; as. East, West, &c. and 

476 The names of the different particular virtues and vices, 
considered as such ; and any other name incapable of denoting the 
idea of plurality in relation to what it expresses. 

477 Names of certain ceremonies, and anniversaries ; as, the 
''Passover,''' " Eucharist," "Christmas," "New-Year's," &c. 

478 Names of principles, or systems from which the adherents 
or practitioners derive their distinctive appellations ; as, 

Platonism, Platonist. Abolitionism, abolitionist. 

479 Second Class of defective names — those which are used 
only in the plural form, and plural sense ; as, 

Aborigines Ashes Breeches Clothes 

Annals Alms Calends Drawers h 

Antipodes Assets Classics Downs 

Archives Betters Compasses Embers 

Antoeci Bowels Customs a Entrails 

a Customs^ when referring to the crmmon usages of people in social life, 
is the regular plural of custom ; but when meaning taxes on merchandize, 
is defective, and always plural. 

b See note f, p 58. 



SYNTAX. 


327 


Minutiae/ 


Pleiads 


Tidings h 


Nippers 


Riches g 


Tongs 


Orgies 


Snuffers 


Thanks 


Pantaloons 


Shears 


Trousers 


Pinchers, or 


Scissors 


Vespers e 


Pincers 


Shambles 


Vitals 
Victuals 


LASS of defecti 


ve names— 


-those which are in the 



News, 



— JVames] 

Forceps 
Fetters 
Filings 
Goods c 
Hatches d 
Ides 
Matins e 

480 Thir 
plural form, but in the singular sense ; as, 

Billiards Dice i Checkers 

and the names of sciences ending in ics ; as. 

Mathematics Tactics Statics Hydraulics, and 

481 The names of particular diseases, ending in s, or e*, (not 
in is) ; as, Mumps, measles, &c. 

482 Fourth Class of defective names — those which, in the 
singular form, may be used in the plural or singular sense ; as, 

Deer Morse Plover Woodcock Cannon a 

Elk Otter Sheep Snipe Sail h 

Moose Ounce Swine Spoonbill Head c 

483 The names of different kinds of fish ; as, Haddock, sal- 
mon, &c. except Whale, shark, and porpoise, which have the reg- 
ular plural, Whales, sharks, porpoises. c? 

c Goods, meaning merchandize, is defective ; but good, when meaning 
the reverse of iU or evil, is a regular name, pluralized, goods. 

d Hatches, meaning oppressive embarrassments, is defective; as, James 
16 always under the hatches: but when meaning trap-doors, is the regular 
plural of hatch. 

e Matins ■d.n^. Vespers, (morning and evening public or stated devotions,) 
are used in the same manner as prayers: as, we say ' James attends jorai/- 
ers (the exercises) every morning.' If we say 'He isat jora^/^r,' wemean 
that he is praying ; but if we say ' He is at prayers,' we mean that he is at- 
tending the exercises; though perhaps not praying himself. 

/ Minuti« — this word has the Latin plural, adopted in the English. 

g Riches — always to be used with a plural asserter, though meaning the 
same as wealth, which is always to have a singular asserter. 

h Tidings should always have the plural form of the asserter, though 
meaning the same as news, which always has the singular. 

i Die, when meaning one of the little cubes used in the play, has its plural, 
dice. 
a "Ten cannon were removed from the field that night." 
b '-Ten sail (meaning vessels,) were bearing towards us." 
c " Twenty head (meaning cattle,) were sold the first hour." 
d The name fish may be regularly pluralized, and often is when used 



328 SYNTAX. {Synthesi& 

484 Fifth Class of defective names — those which, in the 
plural form, may be used in the singular sense, when meaning 
one item, event, fact, or thing : and in the plural sense when 
meaning more than one ; as. 

Wages Means Amends Mallows Pains Bellows Gallows* 

485 Each of the following names, when meRmncr persons, must 
be regarded as plural in sense, and have, referring to it, the plu- 
ral substitute and asserter : 

Ancestry Mankind Populace Ministry Nobility Elite 

Posterity World Public Clergy Yeomanry Mediocrity:}: 

Offspringt People Community Mass Peasantry Vulgus|| 
Aristocracy Democracy Mob-ocracy.§ 

486 RULE XXXIIL A name, though in the plural 
form, when denoting time, distance, money, weight, or mea- 
sure, and meaning the period, sum^ or amount, not the in- 
dividual parts, requires the singular form of the substitute 
or asserter referring to it ; as, 

Three miles was too far for me to walk. James paid, for his book, three 
dollars, which was too much ; and I told him it was. See note VII, p 237. 

PARTICULAR NAMES. 

487 RULEXXXIY. All /amzVz/ or ^wr names, when u- 
sed without the Christian names, have the regular plu- 
ral ; asy 

*« With him, thy Edwards and thy Henries shine. " The Mr. Halls. IT 

488 RULE XXXV. When we w^ould speak or write of 
or concerning two or more persons of one sur-name, men- 

with a numeral ad name, denoting more than one, and without an ad name 
showing what class or species is meant ; as, Five loaves and two Jishes. 



*See 125-6-7, p 59. 

t The term progeny, though always ja/wraZ in sense, is becoming disused 
as to persons, except when employed as a term of disrespect. The term is 
more frequently applied to brutes in the sense of litter or brood, which 
terms, also, when meaning the animals, are to be used only in the plural 
sense and relations. Offspring, when applied to brutes, is plural in sense. 

X This term is used to represent persons of the middle class of society. 

§ This is a term applied in some countries to the lowest class of politicians, 
who act without understanding the principles of government. 

II This term in Latin means the common people, but when Anglicised it 
is used to denote the lowest class of society. 

IT Particular names become general by being pluralized^ but they retain 
the capital letter as the initial or beginning^. 



^—JVanies] syntax. S29 

tioning them by the sur-name, we should phiralize the sur- 
name, not the term of address, [Mr. Mrs. (fcc] as, 

The Mr. Huntingtons. The Mrs. Livingstons. The Miss Foots. The 
Miss Williamses, &c. 015^ We should superscribe letters in this manner. 

489 RULE XXXVI. When we would mention two or 
moie persons of different surnames, by the sur-names, we 
should pluralize the term of address ; as, 

Messrs. Huntington and Livingston. Mrss. [Mistresses'l Huntington 
and Livingston. Misses Foot and Williams. 

490 RULE XXXYIL When we would speak to, or ad- 
dress, directly, two or more persons of oae sur-name, the 
term of address should be pluralized, rather than the name ; 
the same as though the names were different ; as. 

Misses Clinton : allow me to present my friend, Mr, Winslow. Messrs. 
Huntington : may I have the pleasure of your company at dinner to-mor- 
rovs^? Mrss. Allen: I heard, this morning, that your husbands had just land- 
ed in New- York. Misses P^ot and Livingston : will you have your car- 
riage ? Qd^We should inscribe letters in this manner. 

491 RULE XXXVIIL If we use the Christian names 
of two or more persons of one sur-name, the term of ad- 
dress should be pluralized ; the same as though the names 
were wholly different ; as, 

Messrs. George and Henry Huntington. Mrss. Maria and Julia Clin- 
ton. Misses Amelia and Juliet Clinton. Messrs. James Jackson and Seth 
Robinson, a 

a The directions given in the last five rules are to be carefully studied, 
and applied in social intercourse, and epistolary correspondence. 

Inscription, Subscription, and Superscription* 

492 Jn-scription means the Tiame of the person for whom the 
letter is intended, written either at the beginning of the letter, and 
over the left hand part of the page, or at the close of the letter, 
and under the left hand part of the page. [See blank 5, p 330.] 

493 iS'f/&-scription means the name of the writer, written at the 
close of the letter, (or other written article,) and under the right 
hand part of the page. [See blank 4, p 330.] 

494 The term of address is the word or words used, in cour- 

* These terms are defined here only as they relate to epistolary correspon- 
-dence, and without any reference to the literal classical meaning of the 
words from which they are derived . 
28* 



330 SYNTAX. (Synthesis 

tesy, at the beginning of the letter, instead of the' particular name 
of the one addressed ; as, 

Sir, Dear Sir, Reverend Sir, Madam, My Friend, &c. &c. [See blank 
2, below.] 

495 Super-scY\pi\on means the name of the person to whom 
the letter is to be sent, (or the name and place of residence,) 
written on the outside of the letter. [See the example, p 331.] 



-, July 2ad, 1843. 



a Begin your letter on the first page of the sheet on which you are to 
write, leaving a fair margin on the left of the page. 

b Observe the blank marked 1. Put there the name of the particular 
town, village, or city in which you reside, or to which you wish the an- 
swer to your letter to be sent. 

c Put immediately after the name of the place, the date as to time — 
the month, day, and year of your writing. 

d Be sure to date your letter first : and then the dating will not be for- 
gotten, to cause perplexity. 

e Observe blank 2. Put there the term of address, as, Sir, Bear Sir, 
Madam, My Friend, Dear Parents, or whatever you would use. Place 
the term of address at least one line below a range with the date, as above : 
or if you prefer to oiiit the term of address, you can inscribe the letter by 
writing at blank 2, the name of the person to whom you write.. 



^^^ames] syntax. 33f 

/If you inscribe the letter at blank 2, omit the term of address, so as not 
to have both the inscription a.nd the address; as, James Hall, jr. Dear 
Sir : [This practice is very common and very awkward.^ 

g If you inscribe the letter at blank 2, write nothing at blank 5. 

k Begin the body of the letter a little at the right of the term of address,. 
or inscription, at blank 2, and at least two lines below the inscription or ad- 
dress. 

i Commence without parade or ostentation, and without much ceremony. 
J Write in short, direct sentences ; arranging words and sentences accor- 
ding to the natural order of the ideas, facts or circumstances to be expressed. 

k Do not be ambitious of making a long letter ; but rather of making it 
as short as the amount to be communicated, and the nature of the subject 
will allow. 

I Observe blank 3. Put there the terms of respect ; as, Respectfully 
Tours, Respectfully and Truly Yours, Affectionately Yours, &c. or what- 
ever you prefer, according to circumstances. Avoid pompous language, to 
whomsoever you w^rite. 

m Observe blank 4. Put there your own name, as the subscription, 
written with perfect plainness. [He who writes at all, is inexcusable, if he 
does not write his own name and the name of the place of his residence, 
perfectly plain.] 

n A married woman, in writing concerning the ordinary affairs of life, 
should subscribe, (with the feminine prefix, Mrs.) her hushand^s Christian 
name ; as, Mrs. James R. Boyd: except when writing to her relatives, and 
when executing legal papers. 

o If you begin, at blank 2, with the term of address, inscribe the letter, 
at blank 5, with the name of the person to whom you write. 

p Fold the letter so that it will be at least one third wider from left to 
right, than it is the other way. 



PAID 


















tymc'dd 


ve/t'/ia t^/f^. 


<LJjiauton, 




Care of 
J. Brayton 


Esq. 






Wa^enovi'a, 


J/-. 


f 



q In superscribing a letter, write the name of the person as low as 
the middle of the letter, and the name of his place of residence under that, 
and a little at the right of it. ()c|" Write the superscription very plain. 



832 SYNTAX. {Synthesis 

r Do not use such a term as Mr. or Esq. before the person's name, and 
another similar term after ; as, Mr. James Jackson, Esq. [Omit one of the 
terms.] Yet such a term may be used with the name, and the office or 
station mentioned after the name ; as, Josiah Quincy, Esq. President of 
Harvard University. Hon. Samuel Young, Secretary of State. Mr. 
James Williams, Reporter to the Senate. 

s If you write to a lady, an editor, or any man in a public station, or any 
other person for the first time, be sure to pay the postage on your letter, un* 
less there is a full understanding as to this matter; and unless the affair on 
which you write, clearly interests the one you write to, more than yourself. 

V. Distinctions of Case. 

496 RULE XXXIX. A singular or plural name, or sub* 
stitute of either person, (first, second, or third,) may be u- 
sed in the subjective case, indirect, to explain in reference 
to a singular or plural name or substitute in the direct sub- 
jective ; as. 

Such MEN as John should be helped into business. Such minds as Har- 
riet's, are susceptible of great happiness or wretchedness; according to cir- 
cumstances. Such a PERSON as George, should not expect to become great 
in a day. a 

a These words in Italic are parsed according to Analytical Rule IV, part 
8; the word Harrietts is in the two-fold case; but it does not require any 
rule for its possessive case : [See note d, p 240 :] and from its indirect sub- 
jective case, it is parsed according to Analytical Rule IV, part 3. 

The Possessive Forms of Names. 

497 RULE XL. A singular name, not ending with the 

sound of 5, or z, has the possessive form made from the 

subjective, by annexing an apostrophe, (') and adding the 

letter s ; as, 

John's book. Maria's friend. Henry's farm. George's residence. Har- 
riet's studies. *a 

*a By " the sound of s, or 2;," is not meant the sound which one of the 
letters may represent : for a single letter often represents different sounds. 
By " the sound of s," is meant the light hissing sound, as in the word this, 
kiss, miss: and by " the sound of z," is meant the heavy hissing sound, 
as, whiZfis, has, was. [This sound is often represented by the letters.^ 

b The letter c often represents the sound of s, as in ace, pace, mice, con- 
science, science — [pronounced as though spelled ase, pa*e, mise, con-shuns, 
sci-ens. 

c The letter x, when not beginning a syllable, always represents the 
sounds of k and s ; as, waar, taa:, foa; — [pronounced as though spelled waAs, 
taAs, fo^s.] 

d [C, s and x, often represent the sound of s, which is a mere hiss; and 
8 and z often represent the sound of z, which is a hissing ^ buzzing sound.} 



—J\raTn€s] SYNTAX. 333 

498 RULE XLI. A singular name ending with the 
sound of s or z, and an ?i«accented syllable, should have 
only the apostrophe, the s not being added ; as. 

Goodness^ sake. Conscience' sake. "The witness* return to court." 
Moses' ministers. Fhineas' wife. Felix' reply, /aiez' account. Achil- 
les' wrath. Aristides' banishment. 

499 RULE XLIL A singular name ending with the 
sound of 6- and an accented syllable, has only the apostro- 
phe, if there are two consonant sounds between the vowel 
sound in the last syllable and the letter which represents 
the sound of s ; as. 

Sir Joseph Banfe' residence. '* Mr. Bera:' farm house, so celebrated for 
its conveniences, was sold at auction after his death. "*a 

500 RULE XLIII. A singular name, ending with the 
sound of .9, and having but one, or not any, consonant 
sound between it and the vowel, should have the apostro- 
phe and letter 5, if the first syllable of the next word is ac- 
cented ; as. 

The horse's death caused the delay of the messenger. The young school- 
miss's book was lost on the way. ' Peirce's Grammar.' Mr. Bliss's out- 
line maps. 

501 RULE XLIV. A singular name ending in the sound 

of s or z, and an accented syllable, should have only the a- 

postrophe, if the next word is unemphatic, or begins with 

an unaccented syllable ; as, 

Gen. Dix' appointment. Capt. Shays' insurrection. Mr. La Cross' un- 
expected return. " Peirce' Abridgement." 

502 RULE XLY. A singular name, ending with aa 
accented syllable and the sound of z, w ith one or more con- 
sonant sounds between that and the vowel sound of the last 
syllable, has only the apostrophe ; as, 

Mr. Jones' residence. " Barnes' Notes." " Bur/is' Poems." " Sea?^*' 
Pictorial Bible." " Sears' Bible Biography"— yet, 

503 RULE XLYL A singular name, ending w^ith an 

*a In the first example the name Sir Joseph Banks ends with an ac- 
cented syllable, and with the sound of «, having the consonant sounds of n 
and k between the s and the vowel a. 

b In the next example, the unusual name Mr. Berx' ends with an ac- 
cented syllable, with the sound of a-, represented by the letter x; and has 
the consonant sounds of r, and k represented by x, between the sound of «- 
?ind that of the vowel. 



834 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

accented syllable and the sound of z, without a consonant 
sound between that and the vowel sound of the last sylla- 
ble, has the apostrophe and the letter 6' ; as, 

The rose^s fragrance. Boz^s writings. Capt. Shays's death. 

504 RULE XLYII. When the use of the possessive 
form and case would be both hard of expression and un- 
pleasant to the ear, the possessorship should be represented 
by the relative of, and the objective case ; as, 

Capt. Shays's seizure — the king of France's sickness, &c. would be bet- 
ter expressed by *' The seizure o/ Capt. Shays. The sickness of the king 
of France." 

505 RULE XLYIIL rc3=A plural name, not ending 
with the sound of s or z, should have the apostrophe and 
letter s added ; as, 

The men^s cloaks. The women's shawls. The children's books. 

506 RULE XLIX. A plural name, ending with the 

sound of s or z, should have only the apostrophe ; as, 

The students' habits. The ladies' cloaks. The mountains' grandeur. 
The valleys' beauty. The scholars' pursuits. 

507 RULE L. A singular name, to be used in the two- 
fold case, denoting the possessor and the thing possessed, 
should have the apostrophe and s added to the subjective 
form, if the name is of one syllable, or ends with the sound 
of s or %, and an accented syllable ; as, 

James has gone to Mr. Qibbs's. I saw him a moment since at Charles's. 
I reside at Mr. Jones's. 1 was at Mr. Feirce's last evening — but, 

508 RULE LI. A singular name, to be used in the two- 
fold case, denoting the possessor and the thing possessed, 
should have only the apostrophe, if the name ends with the 
sound of s or z, and an unaccented syllable ; as, 

I was at Mr. Perkins' last evening. I saw Henry at Mr. Roberts'. 

509 RULE LIL A plural name has the same form when 
denoting the possessor and the things possessed, as when de- 
noting the possessor, only ; as, 

Whose cloaks zvethosel The ladies'. Whose hats ?ixe these 1 The boys*. 
The ladies' shawls. The boys' umbrellas. 

510 RULE LIIL A name or substitute, used in an an- 
swer to explain in reference to a name or substitute, or both, 
in an interrogative sentence before it, should correspond, 



d 



— JVames] syntax. 335 

in form, with the case or cases of the word or words which 
it is used to explain ; as, 

George : tohom did you mention as your associate ? Henry Jackson. 
Whose carriage were you in ? His. Whose books are these ? Mary's.* 

511 RULE LIV. A name should be used in the j9055e5- 
siveform, and two-fold case^ wherever it can clearly repre- 
sent both the possessor and the thing possessed, ; as, 

I took George's books and left Henry's. Jane took her umbrella and left 
Helen'.s. 

512 RULE LV. Several names, connected by «nJ, and 
denoting the possessors of a common property, should have 
the sign of the possessive case affixed only to the last ; as, 

John, James, and William's farm is the one which their fathers left them. 
Seth and Walter's horse was sold for seventy-five dollars. a 

a This rule rests on the principle on which the name of what is called a 
firm has its possessive form made ; as, /. Hntheway &f Company's store. — 
[See Section III, Examples 1, 2 and 3, p 294.] 

513 RULE LYL When a name and simple substitute 
are used to denote separate or joint owners of property men- 
tioned, each of the possessive words should be in the posses- 
sive form ; as, 

John's and my carriage was broken yesterday. FoMr and Henry'shooks 
are taken home. 

514 RULE LYII. When several names, connected by 
and, denote possessors of separate, individual property, each 
name should have the possessive sign ; as, 

George's, Richard's, and Edmund's farms are those which were be- 
queathed to them by their respective fathers. John's or Samuel's house 
would please me, if I could buy it at a fair price. a 

a {!C|=-Possessive names, joined by any connective except awrf, require the 
possessive sign affixed to each. To all such examples the principle of Rule 
LVII applies. 

515 RULE LYIII. Never use, after the relative of, a 
name or substitute in the two-fold case, (the possessive and 
objective,) without some term to indicate that apart of the 
things referred to, is meant ; as. 

That wheat was some of John's. This book is one of Julians, a 

*The name Henry Jackson is in the objective case, indirect, being giv- 
en to explain in reference to whom. : Analytical Rule IV, part 1. Bis is in 
the two-foid cape, used to explain in relerence to the substitute whose and 
the name carriage : Analytical Rule IV. So is it with the name Mary's'm 
reference to whose books. 



836 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

a It would be incorrect to say, The name on the letter to the lady, was 
that of her husband '5 — [it should be husband]— for there is nothing to in- 
dicate that the name was a joarf or one of her husband's names. 

516 RULE LIX. When you would represent, as the sub- 
ject, or the object, some fact relating to a person or thing, 
have the name or substitute denoting the person or thing, 
in the possessive case, depending on the assertive name 
which expresses the fact ; asj 

Johi's RETURNING HOME relieved the anxiety of his parents. Julia 
was pleased \s\Va Helen's working lace so well. I despised my an- 
tagonists CAVILLING, but I pitied the caviller. a 

a Here the first phrase in small capitals is the subjective of the as* 
serter relieved: the second phrase is the objective of with; and the third 
is the objective of despised. [See note i, p 240.] 

517 RULE LX. Avoid using a phrase in the posses- 
sive form and case in such a manner as to make an awk- 
ward expression ; as. 

The president of the Union Seminary's wife died yesterday at one o'clock. 
The pastor of our church's cousin has come to spend the winter in town. a 

a Reverse the expression thus : The wife of the president of the Union 
Seminary, died, &c. The cousin of the pastor of our church, has come, &c. 

518 RULE LXI. A name or substitute, given to ex- 
plain in reference to another name or substitute in an in- 
terrogative sentence, should be used without the asserter's 
being repeated, but with the relative repeated ; as. 

Whom did you meet ? James Davidson — [not I met James Davidson-I 
To whom did you send the card of invitation I saw on your table ? To Hel- 
en Wilmot — [not, To whom did you send the cards, &c? — Helen Wilmot.'] 

519 RULE LXII. When a direct and an indirect sub- 
jective case are to relate to an intransitive, or a receptive as- 
serter, let the word which is used merely to mention the 
person or thing, be the direct, and that w^iich is to particu- 
larize or describe, the mdirect ; as, 

That MAN is John Qxiincy Adams. Patrick Henry was the orator 
of Nature. John Marshall was Chief Justice oi the United States. 
Howard was a philanthropist. The wages of sin is death; but the 
gift of God is eternal life. 

520 RULE LXIIL Be careful to select and use what- 
ever names you would employ in such a manner as will cor- 
respond with the meaning of the words, and the ideas to be 
expressed, or the facts or circumstances to be described j as, 



1 



Substitutes'] syntax. S37 

Errors — " Did not our heart burn within us as we walked ?" How 
are tiie healths of the family ? For your sokes I will stay at home. a 

a As the word heai-t is not capable of denoting a common property of 
two or more persons, it should be used in the plural form in such circum- 
stances of composition, whether used literally or figuratively ; as, ' Did not 
our hearts burn,' &c. The next sentence should stand, ' How is the health 
of the family ?' [This word (health,) should never be pluralized when 
meaning the condition of persons. The word saA:e should never be plurali- 
zed : nor should the word molasses ever be used m the plural sense.] 



SUBSTITUTES— PRONOUNS. 

521 Tr- 1 . f Simple, Interrogative, Negative, 

^" ^ ' ( Connective, Adname, Indefinite. 

522 RULE LXIV. A simple substitute should be used 
instead of a name, phrase, or sentence, wherever it can 
clearly and forcibly express the idea intended ; as, 

Jane was well when I met her — [not, when I met Jane.'\ John lost his 
book — [not, Johri's book.] I ate the orange which George brought from 
Utica. My father gave it to me — [not, gave the orange which George 
brought jrom Utica, to me/ja 

a For the use of you, in the singular sense, see 148, p 77— and for the use 
of their, m the singular sense with a plural reference, see Rule XV, p 318; 
and for the use of our self, &c. see note *a, p 79. 

523 RULE LXV. An emphatic simple substitute should 
be used in the subjective case, indirect, when we would ex- 
press the subject emphatically ; as, 

John, himself, did that. They, themselves, did nothing; though theyen- 
■ others to labor. 



524 RULE LXYL An emphatic simple substitute should 
be nsed in the objective case, when we would represent the 
subject as being also the object of the action, fact, or rela- 
tion; as, 

George injured himself by too intense study. I reasoned with myself on 
the relations and duties of life. Hannah consoled herself with the reflec- 
tion, that no storm ever lasted always. a 

a In using simple substitutes, never alternate from the grave style, as 
thou, thy, &c. to the ordinary style, as, you, your, &c. in representing the 
same person. If >ou begin with the grave or the ordinary style, continue it. 

525 RULE liXVn. In using a simple substitute, in any 
one case, (the subjective, possessive, or the objective, merely,) 
select the fonn which has the name of the case in which 
you would use the substitute ; as, 

29 



338 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

James was well when I saw him. Julia was going to school when Sarah 
met her. /saw 3/0M last evening. Fowr brother was near i/om. [Seethe 
forms, pp 76-7-8-9.] 

526 RULE LXVni. In using a simple substitute so that 
it will be first, in the subjective, and afterwards in the objec- 
tive ; or first in the objective, and afterwards in the subjec- 
tive — take the form which corresponds with the^ri'^case ; as, 

These are good pens; but they are more than I can pay for. Henry has 
just left us. I saw him a moment since going towards home. a 

a The word they is first in the subjective case, from relation to are, and 
then in the objective, from relation to for — being used to express the things 
for which I can not pay. The word him is first in the objective case, from 
relation to saw, and then in the subjective, from relation to theasserter go- 
ing. Both the substitutes they and him are used according to this rule, for 
the form of each agrees with its first case. 

527 RULE LXIX. A simple substitute should be used 
in the two-fold form and case, (the possessive and subjec- 
tive, or objective,) wherever it can clearly represent both the 
possessor and the thing possessed ; as, 

I took John's book and left mine. John took my carriage and left Iiis. — 
My friends added much to my enjoyment, without diminishing their own. 
" Oh give me tears for others' woes, 
But firmness midst my own."a 
a For its, used in this manner in the two-fold case, see note f, p 79. 

528 RULE LXX. The word own may be used in com- 
bination with a simple substitute, as in the last example, or 
with a name, to constitute the sentence emphatic ; as, 

George lost his own book, but kept mine, 

" Man's mercies from God's hand, proceed ; 
His mercies, from his own." 
'T was [It was] God's own grace that saved my soul 
From sinking in despair a 
a Such a combination is to be parsed as a name or substitute comhinO' 
tion, m the possessive or the two-fold case, according to circumstances. 

529 RULE LXXI. The neuter substitute it may be u- 
sed as the direct subjective or objective word of an asserter 
which has a name or substitute, (singular or plural,) in the 
indirect subjective or objective case, and meaning the same 
person or thing ; as, 

// was I whom you met last evening. It was James and Julia who 
called for an umbrella. It was they to whom I lent it. I supposed it to 
be Julia Mason that handed me the book. [See 452, p 319.] 



—Substitutes] SYNTAX. 389 

530 RULE LXXII. It^ may be used as the direct sub- 
jective of an asserter which has a phrase or a whole sen- 
tence, (as a substitute phrase,) in the indirect subjective ; as, 

It is in vain that Vfe seek happiness in any thing but innocence and duty. 
It is useless to write now ; for the mail has gone. 

531 RULE LXXIIL /if, may stand as a substitute for 
a whole sentence which must otherwise be employed, to de- 
scribe a combination of causes producing a certain effect ; as, 

It rains. It lightens. It thunders. It hails. It snows. It freezes. 

532 RULE LXXIV. Never use a simple substitute and 
an asserter together, as one word .; like 

Me-thinks, me-thought, me- seems. a 

a Such expressions are weak, almost to silliness, and should be carefully 
avoided. Ithiuk, I thought. It seems to me, or I seem, and such expres- 
sions, would be the proper representatives of the ideas intended. 

b Me-thinks, as first used, violates the first principle of composition ; as 
it is an improper word. Next, the word me is in the objective form \.\\o\i^ 
in the subjective case. Next, it has the asserter in the form which belongs to 
a subjective word of the third person singular, {thinks,) instead of the form 
whicii belongs to the word I— {think.) 

533 RULE LXXV. A name, or an adname substitute, 
may be used in addition to, and explanatory of, a simple 
substitute, and be in the same case, r/idirect, that the simple 
substitute is in, direct ; as, 

^' Ye princes ; rulers; all adore." 
" Yje good distressed ; ye noble few ; bear up awhile." 

Connective Substitutes. 

534 RULE LXXVL A connective substitute should be 

used in preference to a name or a simple substitute and a 

connective, wherever the connective substitute can fully 

and clearly express the idea intended ; as, 

James is the young man who so greatly reverences his parents. *' He 
who made and sustains us, deserves the homage of our hearts." "The tree 
that thou cursedst is dead." This is the book which Henry bought. 

535 RULE LXXVIL Who, may be substituted only for 

the names of rational objects, (persons and superior beings,) 

and objects represented as rational ; as, 

John is the man whom I met this morning. It is he in whose house Ire- 
side. You who have been carefully instructed, should be prudent in your 
conduct. " Our Father who art in Heaven" — [not, which art.] Fair 
Hope, who points to distant years, a 



340 SYNTAX. {Synmesis 

a Remember that the word ivhose is used as the possessive form of which, 
and, as such, may represent mere tilings; as, Truth and righteousness are 
streams whose source is God. 

536 RULE LXXYIII. Which, a connective substitute, 
may represent a phrase or a sentence ; as, 

George gave, for his geography and atlas, three dollars and a half, which 
was too much. Helen ivas absent from home, which I greatly regretted ; 
as I was thus deprived of the pleasure of seeing her. 

537 RULE LXXIX. Which, as a connective substi- 
tute, may be used to represent beings inferior to man, and 
objects indefinitely expressed ; as, 

The bird lohich Jane bought, she immediately set at liberty. The first 
objects which I met, were two travellers who had lost their way. 

538 RULE LXXX. Which, as a connective substitute, 

may be used to represent persons or superior beings, when 

employed to refer to a partictilar one, as distinguished from 

others, referred to ; as, 

My father told me which of the two persons I should accept, as my trav- 
elling companion. I had already informed my father which would be my 
choice.* 

639 RULE LXXXI. That, as a connective substitute, 
should be used in preference to who or which, when we would 
represent rational and irrational objects, conjointly or separ- 
ately considered ; as. 

The persons, horses and carriage that went off the precipice, werelound 
below. Neither the man nor the course of conduct that I mentioned, 
cduld be approved. 

540 RULE LXXXn. T/?,«f, as a connective substitute, 
should be used to represent an infant, as such, and animals 
inferior to men, when we wish to attribute a degree of in- 
telligence to the animals ; as, 

I saw the infant that was thrown from the carriage, as the carriage was 
overturned. ' The hen that from the chilly air protects her offspring, in- 
structs me in a parent's duty. 'a 

a Thatf as a connective substitute, may represent persons, or superior 
beings, or mere things, regarded separately ; as, 'I'he man that I met has re- 
turned. The book that was given me was new. 

541 RULE LXXXIIL That, should be used to repre- 

* Which, in these examples, is a definite specifying adname, used as a con- 
nective substitute. The first which is in the objective, from relation to 
should accept ; and the last is in the subjective case, from relattion to would, 
be. 



— Substitutes] syntax, 341 

€ent the person or thing indicated by an interrogative sub- 
stitute to which there is reference; 

Who, that has any sense of moral obligation, or even of decency, can 
stoop to profane swearing ? 

542 RULE LXXXIV. TJiat, should be used as a sub- 
stitute for a name which has, depending on it, an interrog- 
ative ad name, the adname vejy, or the sajne, or any ad- 
name in the superlative form ; or which is preceded by an 
emphatic modifier ', as. 

What man, that loves his neighbor, or venerates bis God, can take ad- 
vantage of his neighbor's distress ? This person is the same man that I met 
yesterday. Seth is the most attentive student that I have in school. — 
George has exactly the habits that I thought he had.* 

543 RULE LXXXV. WJdch, not who, should be used 

as a connective substitute, for the name of a person, when we 

would represent, by the substitute, not the person himself, 

but his qualities or character ; as, 

I am delighted with Horoard, ivhich is but another name for christian 
philanthrophy. JSero — lohich is but another name for shocking and atro- 
cious cruelty, was emphatically the tyrant of Rome. 

544 RULE LXXXYL Place the connective substitute 
next the name, other substitute, or combination of words, 
for which it stands ; as. 

Errors — William, has broke his arm, whom you met yesterday. The 
man has sold his farm, who was formerly your partner in trade. Corrected — 
William, whom you met yesterday, has broken his arm. The man who 
vs^as formerly your partner in trade, has sold his farm. 

545 RULE LXXXVn. Never make a connective 
substitute stand for a name or substitute in the simple pos- 
sessive form and case ; as. 

Errors — I rode the general's horse, whose son presented, with the horse, 
the compliments of hi^ lather. Henry ish\s father's third sox), whose Tifiec- 
tion for his offspring was never doubted. Corrected — [ rode the horse ot the 
general, ichose son, &c. Henry is the third son of his father, ivhosez.&C' 
tion, &c. 

546 RULE LXXXV in. '^eMhex who, which, nox that^ 
should ever be used as a connective substitute, in the sense 
of a name or simple substitute, and one of these words ; as, 

*' Who [the person who] steals my purse, steals trash." 

♦' Who [He who] for thy table feeds the wanton fawn, 
For him as kindly spreads the flowery lawn." 

* See 384, p 2-14. 

29* 



342 SYNTAX. l^yriihesis 

Intetrogative Substitutes. 

547 RULE LXXXIX. Who, as an interrogative, should 
be preferred to which and what, when, by a general ques- 
tion, we would refer to a rational object that we expect to 
be designated, in the answer, by a particular name ; as, 

Who gave that book to Mary ? George Williams. Who accompanied 
her to school ? Jane and Julia. Whom will you visit this afternoon ? 

548 RULE XC. Who, should be used when we 
would heighten the effect of conviction by interrogating as 
though relating to a rational object, yet without expecting 
an answer ; as. 

Who can resist the Almighty ? Who can escape from his presence or 
his power ? 

549 RULE XCL Which, as an interrogative substi- 
tute, should be used when we would discriminate par- 
ticularly between objects referred to, whether rational or ir- 
rational beings ; as. 

Which do you prefer, vice, with degradation and misery ? or virtue, 
with honor and happiness ? Which of the two persons that we met, is 
your cousin ? Which is the direct route to Philadelphia ?t 

550 RULE XCII. What, as an interrogative substi- 
tute, should be used in preference to who or which, when 
we would interror-ate in the most general manner, with- 
out special reference to persons or particular things ; as, 

What did you meet 1 A man and his dog. What do you want ? — 
Nothing. What will consummate a man's destruction 1 Intemperance.* 

Two-fold Case of Connective and Interrogative Substitutes. 

651 RULE XCIIL A connective or an interrogative 
substitute should be used in the possessive form and two- 
fold case, wherever it can clearly represent the possessor and 
the thing possessed ; as, 

I shall purchase Mr. Willard's house : and you may take whosesoever^ 
will suit you ; if you can buy it. I had Seth's carriage : whose did you take? 

552 RULE XCIV. In using a connective substitute, or 
an interrogative substitute, in the two-fold case, (subjective 

* Which and what, used interrogatively, are but adname substitutes, u- 
8ed to interrogate ; and as their mast prominent traitsconsist in their being 
substitutes, and being interrogative \n their influence, (as much as the word 
who, thm used,) they are named, (like other words,) according to their chief 
tx3,its— interrogative substitutes. f See note/, p 84. 



^^Substitutes] SYNTAX. 343 

and objective,) select the form which cbf responds with the 
first odLse in which it is found in regular prosaic order; as, 

George : whom did I see visiting at your father's yesterday. Whoeoer 
will apprehend the rogue shall have the reward. Whomsoever I shall en- 
gage, will bring the books safe.* 

553 RULE XCV. A connective substitute should be u- 
sed in the two-fold case, (the subjective and objective, or ob- 
jective and subjective,) wherever it can sustain both rela- 
tions and clearly express the ideas intended ; as, 

I bought twenty-five bushels of wheat and Henry took =C]{}vvhatOC|= was left. 
I spoke of 4j(^what{JC|= was written in the letter. " Education is, to a hu- 
man soul, what sculpture is to a block of marble." I saw that I must en- 
dure what could not be avoided. 

Adname Substitutes. 

554 XCVI. An adname should be used as an adname 
substitute wherever it can clearly represent the meaning of 
the adname and the name for which it is to stand ; as, 

George bought three carriages and sold tivo of them. When the righte-' 
ous are in authority, the people rejoice ; but when the wicked rule, the 
people mourn. 

" The great, the gay — shall they partake 
The heaven which thou alone canst make ?'* 

555 RULE XCYIL The reciprocal adname substitutes 
should be used without the word mutually^ when they are 
employed to express reciprocation with respect to a fact ; as, 

Errors— i^vaes and John mutually assist each other. They were mutu- 
ally esteemed by each other. [This is tautology. Omit the word mutu^ 
ally, in the first example ; and mutually, or by each other, in the second.] 

Indefinite Substitutes. 

556 RULE XCYIII. In referring, by an indefinite substi- 
tute, to persons and superior beings, use the substitutes be- 
ginning with wfio ; as, whoever ^ whomsoever^ &c. ; as, 

I shall go to school with m} cousin, whomsoever you may accompany. 

557 RULE XCIX. In referring, by an indefinite substi- 
tute, to brutes, or mere things, or events, use the substitutes 

* Here whom, in the objective form is first in the objective case, from re- 
lation to did see; and then in the subjective, from relation to visiting — 
Whoever, in the subjective form, is in the two-fold subjective case. Whom- 
soever is in the objective form, to correspond with its first relation of case, 
(objective,) from connection with shall engage ; yet whomsoever is also in 
the subjective case, from relation to will bring. 



344 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

beginning with what^ when you would not distinguish be- 
tween several objects or events referred to ; as, 

I shall take a package of books ; whatever you may take. I shall attend 
school this winter ; whatever you may do. 

558 RULE C. In referring, by an indefinite substitute, 
to brutes, mere things, or events, use the substitutes begin- 
ning wkhivhich, when you would distinguish between sev- 
eral objects or events mentioned ; as, 

I shall take the histories, and geographies ; whichever (of the kind of 
books) may be your choice. 

559 RULE CL A substitute phrase may be used in the 
independent case, as the name of an essay or piece of com- 
position ; as, 

'How to preserve peaches.' 'How Grammar should be taught.' *Books 
to be sold at auction.' 'Truth told one day too late.' 



ASSERTERS— VERBS. 
/. Primary Distinctions : 

PRINCIPAL, AUXILIAR, AND SUBSTITUTE ASSERTERS. 

560 CIL A principal intransitive asserter, assuming the 
meaning and office of a transitive asserter, may be used re- 
ceptively the same as the asserter Vv^hose meaning it repre- 
sents ; as, 

" Millions of spiritual creatures walk [traverse] the earth." I can walk 
[accomplish, in this manner,] the distance in two hours. The distance was 
walked [accomplished] in two hours. 

561 RULE CIIL A single auxiliar asserter should, 
wherever it can, be so used as to be joined in sense with the 
tw^o or more principals following it ; but only when the aux- 
iliar could be used with either principal, alone ; as, 

C turn from his wickedness, 'i 
If the wicked man shall < | > he shall not die. 

^ do what is lawful and fight, 3 

562 RULE CIY. Two or more auxiliars, of the same 
or different modes and tenses, should be joined in sense with 
a single principal, wherever they can be so used, consistent 
with sense and elegance ; as, 



i 



— Assericrs] syntax. 345 

C might, ^ ^Qihwill, f 

George < | V assw< his brother. | >g-o home to-morrow. 

I should, ) Henry must ) [See 394, p 240.] 

563 RULE CY. A principal or an auxiliar asserter 
should be used as a substitute asserter, wherever it can clear- 
ly express the ideas intended ; as, 

James is not studious at home, but Julia is. Jabez will not go home to- 
night, but Henry will. a 

a 9C|= Substitute Asserters, (like the Simple Substitutes of the first person, 
/, my, we, &c. ) are sometimes used, not to prevent our repeating all the 
words which have been used, in their peculiar form, but to prevent the ne- 
cessity of usi7ig the particular words at all ; as, James t^n^es elegantly, but 
I can not. James does not ivrite elegantly, but I can.* 

564 RULE CVL An asserter, depending on a connec- 
tive substitute, should have the same form as though de- 
pending on the word for which the substitute stands ; as, 

lam your friend. I who am your friend, caution you against such care- 
lessness. The man is to assist your friend. I am the man who is to assist 
you— yet, 

565 RULE CVIL An asserter, depending on a connec- 
tive substitute for a word of the second person and singular 
form, should have the same form as though depending oo 
thou, as a substitute ; as, 

Thou art our Father. " Our Father who art in Heaven. "a 
a Which and what, as connective substitutes, should never have the as- 
serter art, or any other form peculiar to thou, of the simple substitutes. 

566 RULE CVIIL The asserter am, or be, depending 
on tlie substitute /, should correspond with the forms given 
to this asserter in the " Inflections," commencing on p. 
129 : but any other asserter should have the plural or com- 
mon form. 

567 RULE CIX. The asserter am, or be, depending on 
the substitute thou, should have the forms in which the as- 
serter is used in this connection, in the " Inflections," 
commencing on p. 129 ; as. 

Thou art my friend. *' Thou wast my guide, philosopher, and friend. '*^ 
[See (p 128,) numbers, from 211 to 222, inclusive.] 

* In each of these examples the substitute asserter can is used to embody 
and express the idea of the act of writing, as first expressed by writes, or 
does write, and modified in its meaning by the word can. Can expresses, 
also, with my power to do the act of writing, my power or ability to do it 
well — with elegance — to write elegantly. 



346 SYNTAX. ISynthesia 

568 RULE ex. All asserters, used as auxiliars, are to 
be used, according- to circumstances, in the forms and con- 
nections given in the " Inflections," from p. 129, to 
p. 148, inclusive. 

569 RULE CXL Thou^ as a subjective word, requires 
dost, as an auxiliar, in preference to do-est ; but may have 
dost or do-est, as a principal ; as, 

Thou dost believe. Dost thou believe 7 Thou believest : thou dost well. 
Thou doest thine own work. 

570 RULE CXII. Thou, as a subjective word, requires 
est, added to will, as a principal, (not as a substitute) asser- 
ter, when used in the present tense of the declarative mode, 
or the interrogative formed from it ; as, 

*' Thou w'lWest not the death of the sinner." 

571 RULE CXIII. The termination st or est may be 
added to may or might, when used, as a substitute asserter, 
in dependence on thou, as a subjective word ; as, 

I may not do this, but thou majes^.a 

a The other auxiliars of the inferential mode should have the same forms, 
as substitute asserters, that they have as mere auxiliars. 

Auxiliar Asserters, as Positive and Contingents 

572 x\uxiliar asserters are distinguished as positive and contin- 
gent, from what they generally express or imply ; as, 

Positive— I ivill go home. John s^a/^ return. I can write. [These aux- 
iliars, of themselves, represent positively what they express ; and imply no 
contingency.] 

Contingent — I would go home — (that is, if James should return.) I could 
write — (that is, if J had the materials.) [These auxiliars imply, of them- 
selves, some contingency with respect to what they express.] 

573 DIAGRAM OF AUXILIARS. 

Positive Auxiliars. r may^ can-. wilU shall ^ 

I / . ^^ " T~ ~~ . . .~ WRITE. 

Contingent Auxil. ( might ^ could -^ would -^ should-^ 

574 RULE CXIV. In employing- auxiliars to express 
condition, doubt, or supposition, in connection with events, 
remember to use positives with. positives, or contingents with 
contingents ; as, 

I can go home if John tvill let me have his carriage. I may travel South 



— Jlsserters] syntax. 347 

if James can accompany me. I shouldh?Lve come to visit you last week if 
Henry would have agreed to bring me home on Saturday. I might let you 
have money if Seth would pay me what he owes me. I shouldbe glad to 
assist you if I could do it without injuring myself. 

575 RULE CXV. The positive auxiliars should be em- 
ployed when we w^ould express that which we deem prob- 
able ; and the contingent, when we would express that which 
is deemed improbable, or when we would express desire or 
preference ; as, 

If I can find George, (and I believe I can,) I will hand him your letter. 
If I should find George, (which I deem altogether uncertain,) I would hand 
him the letter. I should be glad to see James. William : I would not go 
home to-night. 

576 RULE CXVL A compound sentence may have ei- 
ther a positive or a contingent auxiliar in one member of it, 
and a principal without an auxiHar, or with any auxiliar 
not given in the diagram, (573,) in the other member ; as, 

If James returns I should like to see him. If James returns I shall vis' 
it him. If John had been at the post office, I shouldhdive seen him. 

577 RULE CXVIL The auxiliar Jo, or some of its va- 
riations, should be used w^hen we w^ould express an event 
emphatically, by the declarative mode and the present, or 
the indefinite-past tense ; as, 

I do study as much as I can. I did study as much as I could. a 

a When we would interrogate emphatically, we should omit the auxil- 
iar above mentioned in this rule ; as, Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me 7 
Hated I him ? Yes — for his very office^ sake. 

h From this it is seen that do, and its variations, used in the declarative 
mode, render the expression emphatic ; and soften the expression when 
they are employed in the interrogative mode. 

578 RULE CXVin. Shall should be used in the de^ 

clarative inode with a name of the second or third person, 

to express the idea of authority, or intended compulsion on 

the part of the speaker or w^riter ; as, 

John : you shall go home with me. Henry shall not molest the young 
birds in the tree. " Thou shall not kill."* 

579 RULE CXIX. Shall should be used in the declar- 

* These remarks of shall and will are applicable to them only in simple 
sentences, or compound sentences not expressing condition^ ricniht, or sup- 
position, and when the asserter is not receptive. When the sentence is con- 
ditional or contingent, and when the assertei is intransitive, or receptive, 
the auxiliars must be used accoidmg to circumstances, and with careful ref- 
erence to the idea intended to be expressed, and to elegance of expression. 



848 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

ative mode, with a substitute of the first person, to denote 
the idea of purpose or intention as to a future fact or evejit ; 
as, 

I shall go home. We shall hear from James soon.* 

580 RULE CXX. Will, should be used as an auxiliar, 

in the declarative mode, with a name or substitute of the 

second or the tliird person, merely to express futurity, in ref- 

rence to the fact or event which is affirmed will occur ; 

as, 

James ; you will meet George on the way : and I wish you would hand 
him this note.* 

581 RULE CXXL TF?7Z should be used as an auxiliar, 
in the declarative mode, with a word of the first person, to 
express determination, purpose, or promise ; as, 

I will beware of the intrigues of my antagonist. I will never cease from 
my exertions till my work shall be completed. I will pay you ten dollars 
next week.* 

582 RULE CXXIL In expressing what happened in past 
time, in connection and coincidence with another event that 
was continued in re-occurrence, use the auxiliar would in ex- 
pressing the dependent and coincident fact ; as, 

«< Whenever the man stopped, the lion following him would stop : and 
when the man started on, the hon would follow." " As often as a sailor 
was thrown near the beach, the persons on the shore would toss him a rope 
to save himself with." 

583 RULE CXXIIL In describing a fact which is al- 
ways the same, or an event that continues its occurrence 
with only some occasional, or regular intermission, use the 
present tense ; as, 

The sun rises and sets without our agency. The epicure eats and drinks, 
revels and sleeps^ with no higher wish than merely to gratify his animal ap- 
petites. 

584 RULE CXXIY. In expressing such facts condi- 
tionally, or supposi lively, use the same form of the asserter 
that you would in expressing them positively ; as. 

If the epicure eats and drinks, revels and sleeps, with no higher motive, 
he should notexpect the sublime, consoling jo>s()f thegood. Though man's 
days are as a hand's breadth, yet he squanders time as though he was im- 
mortal.. [See notes ja, b, c, d, e, p 13-1, and ' Subjunctive mode,' p 114.] 

585 RULE CXXY. In describing a past remark that 
* For note * see the note on the preceding page. 



— Asserters] syntax. 349 

represented a fact or error, based on a principle which is al- 
ways the same, use the present tense ; as. 

The psalmist declared that man's days are as a hand's breadth ; and that 
man, in his best estate, is altogether vanity. 

586 RULE CXXVl. In describing, not existence or pos- 
session, merely, but an event which you would represent as 
occurring at the particular time referred to, (present, or in- 
definite-past,) use the continuative form ; as, 

John is writing the contract. I was waiting for Henry when George 
came in — {(C|=Except in instances mentioned by notes j and k, p 143. 

587 RULE CXXYIL In describing a past fact without 
reference to present time, or another past event, use the in- 
definite-past tense ; as, 

James died. William attended school. Seth bought a farm in Illinois. 

588 RULE CXXVIII. Use the different tenses in the 

relations, as to time, which are indicated by their respective 

definitions, [except when otherwise directed by a particular 

rule;] as, 

I had written the letter when James called for it. I wrote the letter. I 
have written the letter. I am writing the letter. I shall have written the 
letter when James will call for it. I shall write the letter, &c. &c. — yet, 

589 RULE CXXIX. In using two asserters, to denote 
past events, with othei^ words to represent the events as suc- 
ceeding each other, employ the indefinite-past tense for both 
events ; as, 

I wrote the letter before James called for it. I started for Boston three 
days after Richard returned from Cincinnati. [See note t, p 123.] 

590 RULE CXXX. In using two asserters^ to denote 
future events, with other words to represent them as succeed- 
ing each other, you may employ the indefinite-future tense 
for both events : as, 

I shall finish the letter before James will call for it. John willgohom^ 
before I shall return — or, [See note ^% p 124.] 

591 RULE CXXXI. In representing two future events 
you may use, with the words ?/, though^ unless^ when., till, 
before., after., and the hke, the indefinite-future tense, and 
the present, or prior-present ; as, 

I shall go home if John returns. I shall remain till Hannah comes in. 
James will go to school after Harriet has returned. [See 200, p 123, and 
remarks from a, p 123, to /, p 124. See also Connectives, hereafter given. 
30 



350 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

592 RULE CXXXII. Never use, with after, or beforey 
or a word of similar meaning, the prior-past, or prior-future 
tense, of the declarative mode, or the interrogative formed 
from it ; as, 

Errors — I had seen James hefore Harriet sent for him. I shall have fin- 
ished the work before James will call for it. Corrected — I saw James he- 
fore, &c. I shall finish my work before, kc.a 

a Asserters, in the inferential mode, or the interrogative formed from it, 
may be used in the prior-past, or the prior-present tense, without or with 
words mentioning the particular time or relation of time ; as, I might have 
come home before Jdiines returned from the West. I may have met i oho. 
yesterday ; though I did not recognize him. 

593 RULE CXXXIIL When you would represent two 

past events, one as recent, and the other as prior to, or before 

it, use the prior-present tense to denote the recent event, and 

the indefinite-past to denote the other ; as, 

I sold my farm last spring ; but I have re-purchased it. The Lord gave, 
and has taken away. 

594 RULE CXXXIV. Never use the prior-present tense 
of the declarative mode, or the interrogative formed from it, 
with other words, to represent the event as having occurred 
in a period fully past and unconnected with present time ; as, 

Errors — I have seen John at work yesterday and last evening. I have 
met Helen several times during the last week. [Correct these expressions 
by using (what should always be used in such circumstances,) the indefinite- 
past tense] — yet, 

595 RULE CXXXV. When you would represent the 
past time, named, as being continued to, and connected 
with, the present, the prior-present tense should be used; as, 

I have met Helen several times within the last few days. George has 
visited us several times since last winter. I have written the letter this e- 
vening. 

596 RULE CXXXVL In describing a fact, which, by 
a past conversation, was then represented as future, or con- 
tingent and future, use the indefinite tense of the inferential 
mode, not the indefinite-past of the declarative ; as, 

William told me that if he shoulddie — [not, c?iecZ]— he hoped there would 
be no parade over his senseless remains. Seth said that if he shovld recover 
— [not, recovered'] — he would make bis attendant some amends for her as- 
siduity. [Errors in relation to the principle of this rule are very common.] 

597 RULE CXXXVIL In expressing^^re^ew^lesire for 
a change of condition or circumstances, you should employ 



^Assertera] syntax. 351 

the indefinite-past tense of the declarative mode, or the in- 
definite of the inferential and the dependent ; as, 

I wish I vjas at home. I wish James and Julia were here. I should like 
to be at home. I should be glad to have James and Julia here. 

Conditional and Contingent Sentences^* 

Described in the first three following Rules. 

598 RULE CXXXVIII. In using the inferential mode 
to express one person's obligation as the ground of inferring 
another's obligation, employ the auxiliar should , rather than 
ought tOj in expressing the first obligation : as. 

If Samuel ought to assist his mother, so also should Henry ; for they 
shared equally in their father's estate. 

599 RULE CXXXIX. In using, after if, a sentence 
referring io present time, and showing one fact as the cause 
of another, use the first asserter after (f, in the indefinite- 
past tense ; as, 

I would go home if it did not rain. Jane would be at school if she was 
not sick : or, * If Jane was not sick, she would be at school . If Richard 
was not intemperate, he could support his family. George would be re- 
spected, if he ivas intelligent and virtuous. 

600 RULE CXL. Condition may be expressed by the 
prior-past, and the indefinite-past tense of the interrogative 
formed from the declarative, and by the use of could and 
should as auxiliars, in the interrogative formed from the in- 
ferential ; as. 

Had James called, I should have gone home with him. Was I at home, 
I would buy those books. Could I notfind Henry in Utica, I had deter- 
mined to go to Albany : and I was resolved, should I not meet him there, 
to go on to New- York. « 

a Can, and the other auxiliars, should never be used in the interrogative 
mode to express condition ; for though some of them might express condi- 
tion, they would express it quite obscurely. 



601 RULE CXLI. Never use the auxiliar had, (or hadst,) 
in the sense of would or should, to denote choice, preference, 
or obligation ; as. 

Errors — I had [would] much rather be myself the slave, 

And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him. — cowper. 
I had [wouldl rather go home in the rain than remain in such a place. 

* For the influence of if, unless^ &c. in changing the use and meaning of 
words ae to time, see 200^ p 123, and notes from a, p 123, to /, p 124. 



352 SYNTAX. [SynthesU 

602 RULE CXLII. Never use the auxiliar had in the 

sense of would have or should have ; as, 

Errors — The physician called immediately, and remained with Henry aH 
day, or he had never recovered — [would never have recovered.] " While 
I was expecting to sink, an empty box floated near me. I seized this and 
supported myself by it — otherwise I had never reached the shore" — [should 
never have reached, &c.] 

603 RULE CXLIIL Never use had before ought to, as 
an auxiliar, (with or without the v/ord notj) to express obU- 
gation ; as, 

Errors — Henry had ought to go home. Julia had not ought to go out 
to-day. Corrected — Henry ought to go home. Julia ought not to go, &c. 

604 RULE CXLIV. rt5=Never use an asserter in the 
prior-past tense of the dependent mode, first division, (as, to 
have lovedj to have been written, <fec.) in dependence on a- 
ny asserter except need, am or be ; as, 

Errors — I intended to have accompanied Henry to Europe. Helen ex- 
pected to have arrived earlier. Corrected — I intended to accompany^ &c. 
or, I had intended to accompany, &c. [according to the time and circum- 
stances.] Helen expected to arrive ; or, Helen had expected to arrive &c.<2 

a If there had been an intention or expectation, which, at the period men- 
tioned, no longer existed, use the jon'or-past tense; as, 1 had intended to 
come with Jane ; but, as Julia called just as Jane and I were to have start- 
ed^ I determined to remain with Julia ; — [otherwise, the indefinite past] 

605 RULE CXLV. Never use the prior past tense of the 
dependent mode, first division, in dependence on am or be, ex- 
cept in the indefinite-past tense when you would express dis- 
appointment in relation to something mentioned ; as, 

I WAS to have accompanied Henry to Europe ; but I w^as sick vv'hen he 
left. Helen was to have arrived earlier ; but the stage came by the other 
route ; and she was obliged to take private conveyance. 

To — As an Accompaniment of the Asserter, 

606 The word to may be called an " accompaniment'''^ of the 
principal asserter, from the fact that it often accompanies the prin- 
cipal, without changing its meaning ; as, 

James was heard to say that he should quit business. [Here the mean- 
ing of the expression would be the same without, as with, the word to — 
The idiom or usage of the language requires it to be used for the euphony 
of the sentence.] 

607 The word to, as an accompaniment, becomes incorporated 
with the asserters, and sometimes acts the part of an auxiliar, and 
sometimes as a substitute asserter; as, 

I told James to start /or home. He did not start for home ; but I told him to. 
* In the first example to is used as an auxiliai: : for, take out to, as ?in aci 



— Jlsserters] syntax. 35S 

608 RULE CXLVI. To should be used as a substitute 
asserter wherever it caa clearly express the ideas intended; as, 

Seth did not go to the store and return as fast as I expected him to. a 
a To, thus used, is a substitute asserter, in the dependent mode, first di- 
vision, and indefinite tense, depending on expected, and on the word him • 

609 RULE CXLVIL Whenever the word to is used as 
an accompaniment and part of an asserter, no word should 
come between the word to and the other part of the asser- 
ter to which it is joined ; as. 

No measures were taken to amicably settle the matter. Seth was told 
to immediately go home. Corrected — No measures were taken to settle 
the matter amicably. Seth was told to go home immediately. 

610 RULE CXLYIIL An asserter in the dependent 

mode, first division, should be used without the word to, 

when depending on let^ used in the sense of permit ; and 

when depending on hid^ see, behold, hear, or make, used 

transitively ; as, 

I let th^Q bird go. The hkd was let fly. I bid John go home. I saio 
him start. Behold the sun arise. 1 heard Mary speak.* 

611 RULE CXLIX. An asserter in the dependent 
mode, first division, following and depending on hid, see, be- 
liold., hear, or malie, used receptively, should have the 
word to joined with it ; as, 

John WAS BIDDEN to go homc. He was seen to start. The sun 
WAS BEHELD to arise unclouded Mray was heard to speak. 

612 RULE CL. An asserter in the dependent mode, 
first division, following, immediatel}^, or depending on, need, 
or dare, (not used receptively, or used without an objective 
word,) should noi have to joined with it ; as, 

James needs not return to-night. I dare not go out this morning.* 

companiment of start, and the word start would be in the commanding 
mode ; as, 1 told John — start for home. In the second example to is used 
as a substitute asserter, standing to represent start for home ; as, John did 
not start for home ; although I told him to. 



* An asserter in the dependent mode, first division, should have the word 
to associated with it, when an extended phrase, coming between it and its 
subjective word, renders the to necessary, to avoid obscurity ; as, also, 
when the use of to would render the expression more emphatic, or more 
euphonious. \^ The next asserter after have, denoting occupancy, use, or 
necessity, has the word to, joined to it ; as, I had a farm to raise my grain 
on ; I have a man to assist me ; I had to write two days. Have, denoting 
cause, has not to ; as, I had Job go home. I have Henry write for Seth. 
30* 



354 SYNTAX 4 iSynihesis 

613 RULE CLI. An asserter in the dependent mode, 
first division, should have the word to joined witii it, when 
it is used in dependence on need^ or dare, used receptively ; 
as, 

James vjas needed to assist his brother. George was dared [challenged,] 
to proceed towards the tiger, a 

a JVeedy meaning in want of, and dare^ used in the sense of challenge, 
(whether used transitively or receptively,) should always have to joined to 
its following dependent asserter ; hut need, medXiing necessity ; and t^are, 
in the sense of venture, should never have to joined except when the clear- 
ness or euphony of the sentence requires it. 

614 RULE CLIL The word to, as an accompaniment 
and part of an asserter, should be used without repetition, 
in reference to, and connection with, as many principal as- 
serters as clearness of expression will allow ; as, 

f take my carriage, 

Irenuested Henrv in J ^^ ^^^^ ^° ^^^ father's, 

1 requested Henry to i f^^nd him the documents, and 

\^return immediately. [See a similar principle men- 
tioned in 561, p 344.] 

615 RULE CLIIL Remember that an asserter depend- 
ing on two or more singular direct subjective words, mean- 
ing different persons or things, yet jointly or unitedly con- 
sidered, has the plural form ; as, 

^' James and Henry are at home," — the same as though I had said of the 
two persons, ^'They are at home.'* 

616 RULE CLIV. ^Remember that the asserter, not 
in the commanding or dependent mode, must agree in its 
subjective terminations with its direct, not its zVzdirect, sub- 
jective word ; as, 

a His meat was locusts. [Here meat, in the singular form, is the di- 
rect subjective word of was, in the singular form : while locusts, the in- 
direct subjective, in the plural form, has no influence on the form of the as- 
serter.] 

6 Locusts were his food. [Here locusts, in the plural form, is the di- 
rect subjective of were, in the plural form : while food, in the singular 
form, is the indirect subjective of were, but has no influence on its form. — 
[See notes d^e, p 234— (Z, p 235— d, e, p 236— V,p237— fA.B, c,p243.] 

c Often, through ignorance, rather than carelessness, persons professedly 
learned in the language, bluRder in reference to this principle, by making 
the asserter agree with its indirect, instead of its tZircci subjective word ; as, 

"The apostrophe*^ ['] " and s, ('s,) is an abbreviation for w," &c. 
— Bull. Grammar, (last edition,) p 17. ''Accuracy and expertness, in this 



-^dnames\ syntax. 355 

exercise, is an important acquisition." — Bullions' Grammar, (last edi- 
tion, p 71.) [One might as well say, " his friends is his support."]* 



ADIVAMES ADJECTIVES AND ARTICLES. 

617 xr- 1 ( Qualifvinar, Interrogative, Negative, „ t., ,.. . 
K""^^ = \ Specifyini, Exclamatory, Assertive, ' Modifying. 

Qualifying Adnames. 

618 RULE CLV. Never employ a double or two-fold 
comparativej or superlative form ; as, 

Errors — I never saw a inore happier man than Henry. Julia is the most 
mWdest and unassuming person I ever knew. Corrected — I never saw a 
happier man, &c. Julia is the mildest and most unassuming person I ever 
knew. 

619 RULE CLVI. Place your adnames where they will 

refer to the right words, and produce the greatest effect ; as, 

" The righteous man flourishes like a tree planted by the river's side." 
Happy man ! a nation will pronounce, with blessings, thy honored name. 
The wise man is happy when he has his own esteem : the fool, when he 
gains the applause of others. Jane is wise and good. She is also happy. 
Great is the Lord. [See Analytical Rule XII, part 1, p 250.] 

620 RULE CLYII. Place your qualifying adname af- 
ter the name to which it refers, when the adname is more 
intimately connected with what follows the name, than with 
what precedes it ; as, 

I am provided with money sufficients:^ for my expenses. The mail was 
old enoughi^ to know his true interest. I have work enough^^ to em- 
ploy me a year — [not, I have sufficient money for my expenses. I have e- 
nough work to last me a year.] 

621 RULE CLYIIL The simple substitute should al- 
w^ays have its qualifying adname after it, except in exclam- 
atory and interrogative expressions ; as, 

James is contented. He is active; he is useful; he is happy. * How 
happy he who shuns the place where sinners love to meet !' 

622 RULE CLIX. In comparing only two objects, use 
the comparative form of the adname — and the superlative 
when you would express the sense of the superlative in com- 
paring three or more objects ; as, 

* For the forms of asserters, used in connection with each, every, either, 
neither^ and, or, nor, &c. see Connectives, hereafter given. 



356 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

Henry is the older (not oUest) of the two brothers. James is the most 
(not more) attentive of the three scholars, or tlie ten scholars. a 

a Old-er is the proper comparative, and old-es^ the superlative of old, in 
common style ; but eld-ev and eld-est, (from the Saxon, aid,) are used in 
the grave, or scriptural style. 

623 RULE CLX. Never use the superlative form of an 
adname in application to an object that is not included in 
the same class as the objects with which it is compared ; as. 

Professor R. is the most studious of all his pupils. [This would represent 
Professor R. as one of his own pupils, and the most studious of his pupils.] 
Corrected — Professor R. is more studious than any of his pupils. 

Adam, the goodliest man, 

Of men, since born, his sons ; 

The fairest of her daughters, Eve.* — milton. 

624 RULE CLXL In using two or more qualifying ad- 
names, to express the quality of one object denoted by a 
name, avoid the use of a specifying adname between the 
quahfying adnames ; as, 

James gave me a sour, juicy, and 6eaw^i/wZ apple— [One apple having the 
three qualities of sourness, juiciness, and beauty. ] George bought a young, 
bay, very large, and well-disciplined horse — [One horse, with the four qual- - 
ities mentioned.] 

625 RULE CLXIL In using qualifying adnames as 
adname substitutes, to represent different objects of the kind 
mentioned, use the name in the singular form, and «, an^ or 
the^ or a possessive w^ord, before each qualifying word ; as, , 

James gave me a sour, a juicy, and a beautiful apple — [Three different 
apples, each having one quality mentioned.] George bought a young, a 
bay, a very large, and a well'discipHned hoise — [Four different horses, each 
having one quality mentioned.] The old and^/ie new testament — [not the 
old and new testaments — or the old and new testament.] Such errors, 
very common, should be carefully avoided. 

Specifying Adnames. 

626 rr- J A Numeral, Ordinal, Distributive, 

' ( Definite, and Indefinite. 

627 RULE CLXIIL When you would employ a numer- 
al and an ordinal specifying adname, in reference to the 
same name, use the ordinal first in order, as theauxihar; as, 

" The choir will sing the first three verses." The last two days of the 
month, I spent in New- York, a 

* This would indicate that Adam was one of his oicn sons, and the goodlic^^i one of 
them ; and that Eve was one of her own dauffhtcrs, and, in beauty, was peerless among 
her sisters, who were her own daughters ! Corrected, (in sense)—" Adam, a goodlier 
man than men since born, liis sons—fairer than any of her daughters, Eve ' 



— Mnames] syntax. 357 

a The word three is used to show how many verses, as a class, are refer- 
red to ; and the word first to show in which part of the hymn the verses to 
be sung are found . 

b Every is often used as an auxiliar to an ordinal adname; as, John gave 
me every tenth apple. 

628 RULE CLXIV. When you would use a name and 
an adnamej together, as one principal adname, before the 
name of the object mentioned ; let the name in the adname 
phrase, be in the singular form ; as, 

Henry ; hand me the two-foot rule. Seth ; bring me the ten-foot mea- 
sure. A four-year-old ox. A three-mile fence. A three-foot wall. A 
four-rod chmn. a 

a On this principle we talk of a four-foot-ed [not/<?e/-ed] beast. A six- 
wing-ed insect. 

b These combinations (ten-foot, &c.) are to be parsed together, as one 
part of speech, when they come before the name — as much as though they 
were joined by a hyphen. It makes no difference in the character of the 
combination, whether the hyphen is used ; as, a two-foot rule — or is not u- 
sed; as, di two foot rule. If we were to consider the words as separate or 
distinct, (one, as an adname, and the other as a mere name,) we should use 
the plural form of the name in the phrase; as, ten feet — not, ten foot. 

629 RULE CLXY. When you would employ, together, 
a numeral adname, and a name, as one auxiliar adname, af- 
ter the word denoting the object to be described, use the 
name in the adname combination, in the plural form ; as, 

The rule is two feet long — \tiuo feet being auxiliar to the principal ad- 
name, long.'] The measure is ten feet long. The ox is four years old. — 
The fence is three miles long. The wail is three feet high. The chain i§ 
four rods long. 

630 RULE CLXVL A numeral adname, used as a prin» 
cipal, should always determine the form of its name, except 
in circumstances mentioned by Rule CLXIV, and except 
where the name is defective ; as, 

One man. Ten men. Fifty book^. A dozen men, or twelve men. a 
a The numeral adnames, employed as adname substitutes, must have the 
singular or plural form of the asserter, according to the sense ; the same as 
the names species, series, brace, couple, pair, span, yoke, party, which have 
asserters correspond in form with the sense or meaning of the names. 

631 RULE CLXVIL In using terms of multiplication, 

as, twice one, ten times ten, &c. let the asserter be always 

in the singular form, from the aggregate meaning of the 

direct subjective phrase; as, 

Twice one is two. Twice four is eight. Thrice, or three times three 
is nine. a 



358 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

a In such expressions, the entire phrase is the direct subjective of the de- 
pending asserter ; for no one part oi the phrase would express what is meant. 
We do not mean that ticice, merely, is eight, or that four, merely, is eight 
— but that twice four, taken together, as one number, is eight, or equal to 
eight. It may stand thus : 

10 i C 10 10 W a hundred 

times \is 120 --or 120, (the number,) is } times-or times >is\ I 

12 ) ^ 12 : 12 ^ ( twenty— 

the whole being taken as one number. 

632 RULE CLXVIII. In expressing what, in Arithmetic, 
are coW^d. fractions^ let the ordinal adname, used as a substi- 
tute for the name part or parts, be singular or plural, ac- 
cording to the sense of the numeral belonging to it ; as, 

_2_{^ two ) two ) two 

^ 1 {^twenty-firsts : ) twenty-ones, | i^e.niy-oneths.a 

a Firsts is to one, just what fifths is to^ye ; as, five, fiftli ; four, fourth ; 
three, third ; two, second ; one, first : 

two ) ^^ o two ) ^o 2 ^^^^° 



25 -2- *^^ ^ 94 2_ two ) 2S 

' ^ ^ twenty-fifths ; p^' ^^4 twenty-fourths ; S ' 



2 3 twenty- 
thirilc ■ 



two ) ^-i o . two 



' ^^ twenty- seconds; | ' ^^ twenty-firsts. 

633 RULE CLXIX. In distinguishing a particular page, 
chapter, section, hymn, or other thing, by its order, the or- 
dinal adname should be used, whether it comes before or 
after the name ; as, 

Page 22nd, or the 22nd page. The 27th hymn, or hymn 27th. a 
a ()[3=-For convenience, in printing, the ordinal adname is printed like 
the numeral ; as page 22, or the 22 page— to be spoken as though printed 
page 22nd, or the 22nd page. When you would use the ordinal after the 
name, in particularizing a chapter, page, hymn, verse, lesson, &c. &c, omit 
the ; as in the examples. 

634 RULE CLXX. In using the word one with a spe- 
cifying adname, more extensive in its meaning, between 
one. and the following name, the intervening adname must 
determine the form of the name; as, 

James will give me oneov more books when he returns. George will give 
Henry one or tioo apples. a 

a In such examples, the word one is an adname substitute ; the same as 
though it occurred after the name ; as, Mary will give Harriet one or two 
books — or, Mary will give Harriet two books or one. 

635 RULE CLXXI. When you mean several objects 
of one kind, let the name agree in form with the last ad- 
name before it ; and tlte, or a possessive word be used before 



—Adnames] syntax. 359 

that adname, and before the others as adname substitutes ; 
as, 

Let the choir sing the first, second, and the last two verses of the hymn. Let 
John read the first two verses and the last of that chapter. The choir may 
sing the first two, the fifth, and the last verse. George Wilmot 's^rs^, sec- 
ond, and his third daughter were at the concert. The corner of Washing- 
ton street, and William — or, at the corner of Washington, and William street 
— [the last name Washington, with a comma (,) after it, being a definite 
specifying adname, used as an adname substitute for the name street : while 
the word William is a definite specifying adname, belonging, alone, to the 
name street, in the singular form. It is common to say, erroneously. The 
corner of Washington and William streets — like my saying, I bought the 
brick and the sfone houses : when I mean only one house of each kind — the 
brick, and the stone house.^a 

a Where a series of adnames is thus employed, the possessive word, or 
the word the needs be used only before the first, and the last ; as. 

Read, if you please, the first, second, fourth, fifth, and the last verse. 

Distributive Specifying Adnames. 

636 RULE CLXXII. A distributive specifying adname, 
used as a principal, requires the name on which it depends 
to be in the singular form ; as, 

Every xiizxi. Each mzn. Either md.n. Every mdiTi. 

637 RULE CLXXIIL A distributive specifying adname, 

used as an auxiliar to a numeral adname, denoting several, 

may belong, with its principal, to a plural name ; as, 

" The officer inspected every hundred men, as they were presented in 
battalions, "a 

a A distributive specifying adname, acting as an adname, or adname sub- 
stitute, may be used in reference to one of two objects, or any greater number; 
as, ^Each man of the numerous party, was armed for the expected attack.' 
Here are ten books : and you may take either of them. 

638 RULE CLXXIV. Never use either in the sense of 
each^ both, or all ; as, 

Errors — Flowers were blooming on either side of the path — \^each side, 
or both sides.] • Fresh troops of the enemy were assembling on ciMerside 
of us' — [on both sides of us or all sides, — front, flanks, and rear.Ja 

a Each, means both, or all, individually considered. Either, mez.ns any 
one of two or more, not both or all, of them at the same time ; as. Each 
of the ten books is yours. [This remark applies to all; as. All of them are 
yours.] Youmay take d^Aer of the ten books. [This means any oneof them.] 

b Either, used as a modifying connective, in a sentence of permission, 
applies to each or all of the facts mentioned, and indicates that all of them 
may be done according to particular and corresponding circumstances ; as, 
" The word what may be used either as a substitute, or as an adname." — 
[That is, it may be one part of speech in one place, and be the other in oth- 
er circumstances.] 



860 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

c For the forms of substitutes and asserters, used in connection with each, 
every, &c. see Connectives, hereafter given. 

Definite Specifying Adnames. 

639 RULE CLXXY. The should not be used as 
an adname before the name man^ or ivoman, in the singular 
form, when all of the particular class are meant ; as, 

'• What is man that thou art mindful of him ?" •' God made man up- 
right." While man proclaims his wrongs, woman conceals her sorrows and 
their cause, 

640 RULE CLXXVL The should be used as an ad- 
name before the name of any animal inferior to man, when 
the name is used in the singular form, to denote the entire 
genus or class of the animals ; as, 

The lion is terrible. The tiger is fierce. *< The eagle is the king of 
birds." 

" In constanc}' and nuptial love, 
I learn my duty from the dove. " 

641 RULE CLXXYIL The should not be used before 
singular names (used in a general sense,) of sciences, pro- 
fessions, virtues, vices, crimes, drugs, medicines, minerals, 
geological principles, and vegetables, air, water, earth, &c.ff 

a [Let the teacher require the pupil to illustrate in reference to each class 
of things mentioned.] 

642 RULE CLXXYIII. The should be used in prefer- 
ence to this or that, these, or those, when you would refer to 
objects before mentioned, without contrasting one with an- 
other; as, 

I met a person in the coach yesterday; and I think Henry Jackson is /Aeman. 

"Nathan said to David thou art the man" — [referring to the person charac- 
terized by a foregoing narrative.] 

643 RULE CLXXIX. The should be used in prefer- 
ence to this or that, these or those, as an adname, when you 
would describe or distinguish a particular person or thing 
by the use of the adname and a connective substitute ; as, 

Errors — John is that man V}hom I met. I brought home those apples 
which Henry purchased. " Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one" — Bullions' Grammar, last edition, p 12. 
Corrected — John is the man whom I met. I brought home iAe apples which 
Henry purchased. *' Number is the property of a noun by which," &c. 

644 RULE CLXXX. The should be employed in ref- 



—^rfnemcs] syntax. 361 

erence to this or that^ when we refer to a thing of which 
we have hut one in common use, or which is often the sub- 
ject of conversation ; as, 

James ; go to the well for some water. George : will you hand me the 
ax? It is near the cistern. I want, also, ^Ae hammer, which is in the 
wood-house. 

645 RULE CLXXXI. ^^Tlie should be preferred to 
tliis or that^ these or those^ when, at table, Ave would ask for 
something without distinguishing between several kinds, 
parts, or parcels ; as, 

Will you hand me the castor ? (not that castor. ) Will you pass the but- 
ter ? — (not that butter.) Will you pass the potatoes ? — (not these, nor them! 
potatoes.) 

646 RULE CLXXXIL Never use them, as a specify- 
ing adname ; [in the sense of the or those ;] as. 

Errors — George : I would thank you for them books — them are books. 
Corrected — I would thank you for those books — or, for the books ; if none 
but those you want are near the person, and you have been conversing con- 
cerning them. 

647 RULE CLXXXIIL When ^Ae is not followed, im- 
mediate^, by a qualifying or an ordinal adname, it should 
precede the name, or adname substitute, on which it de- 
pends ; asj 

T/ieman. TAetwomen. " One shall be taken, and ^Ae other left." — 
The suspicious, and the quarrelsome, are the bane of domestic happiness. 

648 RULE CLXXXIY. When the is followed, imme- 
diately, by a qualifying or an ordinal adname, used as the 
chief epithet or distinguishing term of the person or thing 
mentioned, the should stand, with the other adname^ before 
or after the name ; as, 

*' The Great Isabella — patroness of Columbus, The western country. — 
The Atlantic Ocean. The Allegany mountains, 

Aristides the Just.—, Phocion the Good.—, George the Third.—, 
^ -4X)— ^ ^ =€«— ^ -- 450---' 

" T^e great deliverer — he,* who, from the gloom 
Of cloistered monks and jargon-teaching schools. 
Led forth the true Philosophy, there long 
Held in the magic chain of words and forms. 
And definitions void. "a — Thomson. 
a The, thus employed, often becomes an auxiliar adname, limiting the 
meaning and application of the following adname, and the name, in combi- 
nation. *Bacon. 
31 



362 SYNTAX. [Synthe^ 

649 RULE CLXXXV. Where the, and the indefinite 
specifying adname «, or an, are to be employed in the same 
sentence, in describing a particular object, use the in refer- 
ence to the thing more particularly referred to ; as, 

I found the pocket-book of a traveller — [meaning some traveller not par- 
ticularized. ] Seth saw a part of the boat w^hich was wrecked. a 

a When a thing to be mentioned is the only one of the kind belonging to 
some other particular thing, iheshou\d be used in reference to both ; as, The 
helm of the wrecked vessel was found on the coast. 

b O^No general rule can be given to meet every contingency of style 
used in composition. The speaker and writer must bear in mind the gen- 
eral, and somewhat particular character of the, as contrasted with a, and 
use the two words in their respective places accordingly. 

c (Jt5=-For the use of ^/^e, as an auxiliar adname, see 396, and note c, p 
251. For the use of the, as an auxiliar modifier, see 399, and note e,p253. 

650 RULE CLXXXYL This and that, or these and 
those, (according to circumstances.) should be used in pref- 
erence to the, when there is reference to one object or class 
of objects, contrasted with another ; or when we point to 
some particular object in sight ; as, 

I prefer this book to that. Henry : will you hand me that book. Will 
you have this one, too ? I prefer these apples to those which Ira bought. a 

a When we would use an adname substitute instead of a name and a def- 
inite specifying adname, we should employ this or that, or these or those, 
with or without a connective ; as, those, in the last example. I took this 
book and left that one. George : you may take that book, if you will let 
me have this. 

651 RULE CLXXXVIL This and that, as principal 
adnames, should belong to names only in the singular form ; 
as, This man. That man. 

652 RULE CLXXXYIIL This and that, as auxiliars, 
may belong, with principals indicating plurality, to names 
in the plural form ; as, 

This hundi'ed men were inspected in the morning. That dozen birds were 
sold for fifty cents, a 

a This and that may belong to adname substitutes denoting plurality, 
when the objects are to be considered as a body, mass, or collection ; as. 
This hundred were inspected this morning. 

h When the several objects are to be considered, not as a body or mass, 
these or those, (not this or that,) should be used; as. These five men are 
sick. 

653 RULE CLXXXIX. These and those should be- 
long only to plural names and adname substitutes ; as, 



--Adnames] syntax. 363 

These books. Those books. These few. Those few. These sour 
apples; Mo«e sweet ones. 

654 RULE CXC. This and these^ as contrasted with 
that and those, whether employed as adnames or as substi- 
tutes, should be used to distinguish an object or a class of 
objects, near us, or last mentioned — while 

655 RULE CXCL That and those, as contrasted with 
this and these^ should be used to distinguish an object or a 
class of objects distant from us, or first mentioned — and 

656 RULE CXCIL Former, as contrasted with latter, 
should be used to distinguish what is first mentioned — and 
latter, contrasted with former, to distinguish what is last 
mentioned: thus — 

Examples for the three rules. — Forgiveness dsii^i revenge zxe 
opposite principles. That conduces to social harmony and individual hap- 
piness. This tends to the destruction of both. Truth?LX\^ Righteousness 
are perpetually at variance with Error and Vice. The former can no more 
harmonize with the latter than water can coalesce with fire. " Males and 
females were both called into the public service — those to defend the city, 
and these to attend the sick, and dress the wounds of the soldiers." 

Indefinite Specifying Adnames. 

657 RULE CXCIIL A and an, respectively used as prin- 
cipal adnames, may belong only to singular names and ad- 
name substitutes ; as, 

Ji man. An apple. George sold his brick house, and bought a stone one. 

658 RULE CXCIY. A, (not rm,) should be used before a 
word beginning with a consonant sound, [whichever sylla- 
ble of the word may be accented ;] as, 

A house. A hundred men. A Aumble man.* A historical fact. A u- 
niversity. Amnioxvci.a ^ Zarge house. .^2 /iigh tower. ./3 wise man. 

a In such words as wnion, university, wniform, C/tica, C/hadilla, &c. the 
letter u has the consonant sound of y, lyeeh^'] added to its own sound — [m, 
properly pronounced, as, e-w, ew:'] the word union being pronounced as 
though spelled yun-ion, or yewn-yun. 

659 RULE CXCV. An,{noia,) should be used before a 
word beginning with a vowel sound ; as, 

An apple. An acre. An wnder-ground room. An hour glass. An hon- 
est man. j2« honorable employment, a 

a For the use of a and many, as auxiliar adnames, see 396, and notes by 
c. d, p 251. 

* The author prefers sounding the h in humble and its derivative words, 
to regarding the h as mute, and pronouncing the word, wnble. 



364 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

660 RULE CXCYI. A, may be used as an auxiliar 
modifier to add to the meaning- of the principal, and to 
change the sense from negative to affirmative, and thereby 
to soften the expression ; thus, 

The victim of intolerance was little affected at the sight of the engines 
of torture. [This is but another manner of affirming a kind of negative. — 
It means that he was not, or was scarcely, affected at all :] but when I say, 

The victim of intolerance was a little affected (or affected a little,) at the 
sight of the engines of torture, it means that he was affected in some de- 
gree ; the sentence being entirely affirmative to the full extent of the mean- 
ing of the words. 

661 RULE CXCVIL All, as an adname, when refer- 
ring to individuals, (persons or things,) merely, not events, 
requires a plural name, or adnam.e substitute ; as, 

Ml men are hastening towards the grave. Jill animal* must die. 'Man, 
beast, bird, and insect — all were swept away.' 

662 RULE CXCVIIL All, used as an adname substi- 
tute, meaning different events, not persons or things, may 
be used in an aggregate and singular sense ; as, 

" The pumps were manned : the guns were throwai overboard; and sig- 
nals of distress were made : but all was in vdL'm — the ship careened, and 
very soon went down." 

663 RULE CXCIX. One may he used in contrast with 
another ; but some should not be used in contrast w4th oth- 
er ; as, 

Errors — Some person or other must do that work. Corrected — Some 
person must do that work, or One person or another must do the work. a 

a Some, without other, is equal, in sense, to one and another; as, Some 
person must have found my trunk — that is. One person or another must 
have found it. 

664 RULE CC. Such should never be used in the sense 
of so, as an auxihar adname ; as. 

Errors — The stranger could not brook such a brutal affront. Corrected 
— The stranger could not brook so brutal an affront. a 

a Such refers to a class or sort of objects — so, to the degree or extent of 
a quality of an object. 

Interrogative Adnames. 

665 RULE CCL What, as contrasted with which, should 
be used when we would ask a general question in reference 
to persons, things, or events, without discriminating between 
several of the kind mentioned ; as. 

What goods can you let me ha,ve ? What work has. been doae \ 



~-Modificrs\ syntax. 365 

666 RULE ecu. Which, as contrasted with what^ 
should be used when we would discriminate between sever- 
al things mentioned or referred to ; as, 

Which pen-knife do you prefer ? Vf'hich work do you like best ? — 
WJiich school do you attend. a 

a Although which and what are the only mere principal interrogative ad- 
names, yet 7iow is frequently used as an auxiiiar adname to vary the char- 
acter of a question ; as, Heavy, is this load ? [A general question as to the 
weight of the load.] How heavy is this load ? [The question is now more 
particular, and made so by the use of how,'] 

Exclamatory Adname. 

667 {?i^=»As what is the only principal exclamatory adname, a 
rule in reference to its use is deemed unnecessary. [See How, 
as parsed on p 278, and notes *a and b, p 175.] 

Negative Adname. 

668 As no is the only principal negative adname, a rule con- 
cerning its use is deemed unnecessary. [See No, parsed on p 
278, and note t, p 175.] 

Assertive Adnames. 

669 RULE CCIII. As assertive adnames give great life 
and force to sentences, by attributing actions, as qualities, to 
objects, they should be employed wherever it can be done 
consistent with elegance ; as, 

Now every passion sinks to rest, 
The throbbing heart lies still : 
And varying schemes of life no more 
Distract the laboring will. — carter. 

Modifying Adnames. 

670 RULE CCIV. A modifying adname should have 
the form of a qualifying adname ; as, 

" Charity lays the rough paths of peevish nature even'' — [not even-/?/.] 
The road was made straight — [not straight- /y.] Henry rubbed the silver 
irigy^^— [not bright-/?/.] Mary seemed /ear/iw/— [not fearful-/^.] 



MODIFIERS— ADVERBS. 

671 RULE CCV. Select your modifiers with respect to 
their meaning and the ideas to be communicated, and place 
31* 



S66 SYNtAX. ISyriiMsii 

the modifiers where they will mostdirecily qualify the words 
to which they more particularly refer ; as, 

EXEMPLIFICATION. 

a I, only, saw James last week. [This indicates that no other person saw 
James within the period mentioned, /might, or might not have conversed 
with him.] 

b I only saw James last week. [This indicates that I did nothing in re- 
lation to him, except merely seeing him. Others might, or might not have 
seen him, and conversed with him ; but /merely saw him : and might, or 
might not, have seen others.] 

c I saw only James last week. [This indicates that though I saw him, I 
did not see any one else. Others might, or might not, have seen him.] 

d I saw James only last week. [This is ambiguous. It may mean that 
1 saw James no longer ago than last week ; or it may mean that I did not see 
him at any time except last week.] 

e 1 saw James last week, only. [This means positively that /saw James 
within the period mentioned, and at no other time. ] 

/ Ccf^I only intended to visit Henry. [This means that I only intended 
the fact mentioned — that I did not do the visiting.] 

g I intended only to visit Henry. [This means that I intended to do 
nothing to Henry except visiting him — that I intended not to do any busi- 
ness with him.] 

h I intended to visit only Henry — or Henry only. [Either of these 
would indicate that whatever else I might do to, or with, Henry, 1 intended 
to visit none but him.] 

i D£|=The foregoing should convince the learner of the importance of at- 
tending, not only to the individual meaning of modifiers, but also to their 
positional meaning, or the meaning which they derive and impart from 
iheix position or place in a sentence. 

672 RULE CCVI. The modifier ill should never have 
y added to make illy. [See notes «, &, c, p 184.] 

673 RULE CCVIL Right-ly and wrong-ly should nev- 
er be used with the /y, after the principal asserter ; or with- 
out the ly^ before the principal asserter ; thus, 

We should never say the work was done right-/y, or wrong-/y ,• or that 
the work was right or wrong done. [Reverse the application. ]a 

a Slow-ly should never be used without the ly before the principal as- 
serter to which it refers ; [and only when euphony will allow, should it be 
used with the ly after the principal asserter] ; as. We should not say, John 
was slo^v advancing with the work : but. He was slowly advancing, &c. 

674 RULE covin. In comparing only two facts or e- 
vents, always employ the comparative form of a modifier ; 
and the superlative in comparing three or more events ; as, 

Errors— Oi those two boys, Henry visits us the oiten-est. Of the three , 



—Modifiers] syntax. 367 

William, Henry, and Seth, William visit3 us the often-cr. [Correct, by re- 
versing the application of the modifiers.] 

675 RULE CCIX. Never use a two-fold or double com- 
parative or superlative form of the modifier ; as, 

James visits us more often-cr than Henry does. Seth visits us the mdst 
often-est of the three boys. [Correct, by omitting either the jore-fixed 
words more and most, or the syllables sw/-fixed, er and est. 

676 RULE OCX. Each, as a modifier, though preceded 
by a plural name or substitute, has the possessive substitute 
immediately after it, in the singular form : singly and 7^e- 
sjjectivehjj have the plural substitute immediately following 
them ; as. 

The men took, each^ his burden, and went on : or. The men took, si7ig- 
ly, their burdens, and went on : or, The men took, respectively ^ their bur- 
dens, and went on : [or, using an adname, The men took their respective 
burdens, and went on.]a 

a Every, and a name, are often used as a modifying phrase or modifier, 
and, as such, they have the individualizing influence of eacA ; as, They 
went, every man, to his own\\o\\s& : or, They went, eachy to his ownhouse : 
They went, respectively, to their own houses. 

b The difference between each and respectively^ may be exhibited thus : 

^ each to a convent." 

[ respectively to convents. 

677 RULE CCXL A principal modifier, derived from a 

qualifying adname by adding ly to the adname form, or by 

exchanging le for Zy, should lose its ly when preceded by an 

auxiliar ending in ly ; as, 

James behaves civil -Z?/ towards every one. James behaves truZ^ civil to- 
wards every one. Helen writes elegantly. Helen writes xemzxkzbly ele- 
gant. 

678 RULE CCXII. A name, with or without a prece- 
ding adname, may be used as a modifier when employed 
without a relative, merely to show the extent of a fact, or pro- 
portion of the fact mentioned, to the objects named ; as, 

" I care not a pin for the applause of the mob." *' I do not care five 
dollars for that affair" — the same in relation, (not in meaning,) as, " I do 
not care much for that affair." James sold his apples for fifty cents abush. 
el, Henry receives twelve dollars a month [monthly] for his labor. He 
was offered three hundred dollars a year {^yearly} for his services, if he 
would go South. [See 316, p 184.] 

679 RULE CCXIIL Home may be used as a modifier 
to show the tendency or direction of an act ; not to show 
the place of remaining ; as, 



■They [the disappointed lovers,] retired ^ 



368 SYNTAX. ISynthem 

John ; go home. John went home. Helen sent her sister home with the 
parcel of letters. a 

a When I say, Seth remains at home — James is near hojne — He will ar- 
rive at home, [not, will arrive home^'] the word home is used as a name, 
merely, in the objective case, depending on a relative. 

b Home may be used as a modifier after been^ (with an auxiliar,) deno- 
ting one's going to, and leaving, his residence ; as, Henry has been home. 
[See *, p 152.] Home may not be used as a modifier after the asserter arrive. 



RELATIVES— PREPOSITIONS. 

680 RULE CCXiy. Be careful to select your relatives 
according to their proper, established meaning, and the re- 
lations which you would express ; as, 

Errors— John ; run to the store after a few pounds of sugar — [as though 
the sugar had just gone from the house to the store, and John must run af- 
ter, or pursue it. In strictness, he is not told to get the sugar, but mere- 
ly to run after it.] Correct, by using for in the place of qjfter. 

681 RULE CCXV. Into should be used to describe a 
motion or tendency to a place within something mentioned ; 
and in, to describe a continuance there ; as, 

John went into [not m,] the house . He sat down in [not into,} the house, a 
a When we use the name of the place info or out of which one is to go 
or come, the syllable to, (as into,) or the word of, (as out of,) should be u- 
sed ; as, James; come in^o the shop. George ; step out oflhe path. But 
when the name of the place is not given, the to and the o/should be omitted; 
as, James ; come in. John ; go out : these two words being used as modifiers. 

682 RULE CCXVL Upon should be used to describe 
motion or tendency upward to a place on something — and 
on, to describe a continuance there; as, 

Julius went upon the platform. He stood on the platform. Henry sat 
07i [not up-on\ the fence, conversing with his neighbor, who was 07i [not 
up-on\ his horse. 

683 RULE CCXVIL On-to, (from to and on,) may be 
used to describe a motion or tendency upward, downward, 
or horizontal, to a place on something — and on should be 
used to describe a continuance there ; as, 

Hannah stepped on to the boat just as it was leaving the wharf. She re- 
mained on the deck of the boat till the boat was out of sight. 

684 RULE CCXVIIL To should be used to describe a 
fact as extended to a place — and at, in describing a contin- 
uance there \ as, 



— Connectives] syntax. 369 

George went to his residence. He purposes to stay at [not to] home, 
this evening. James went to Utica. He is now at Henry's. 

685 RULE CCXIX. In mentioning objects or facts in 
reference to countries, towns, villages, or cities, streets, and 
D umbers of the houses, &c. use in before the name of the 
greater district or place, and at before the less ; as, 

Helen is at Utica, in Oneida county. Julia is at Hartford, in Connecti- 
cut. John is at school in the village. Seth resides at 624, in Broadway, 
[street,] New- York. a 

a Usually the relative before the name of the greater district is omit- 
ted, and the word in, used before the name of the less; as, Julia is m Hart- 
ford, Connecticut — [both names being in the objective case, depending on 
in.] 

686 RULE CCXX. When we use the name friend to 
denote a person wilUng to assist or aid, to should be used be- 
fore the name of the object ; and of should be used when 
by friend, we mean an associate ; as, 

I am a friend to real improvement. I am a friend to that youne; per- 
son ; and should be glad to see him in business. James is a friend of Seth 
and Robert ; and was of course invited to their party. a 

a A-downis often used in the sense of down, as a relative : and as re- 
gards, in the sense of concerning , with respect to, or of 



COjVI^ECTIVES— CONJUNCTIONS. 

687 RULE CCXXL And, as contrasted witli or, or 
nor, should be used when we would indicate that a prior 
and a subsequent person or thing are to be regarded jointly 
or together, in the remark ; as, 

James and Henry are at home. Julia and Eliza are sisters. I met Seth 
and George at the Fair. {And, means both or all, referred to.) 

688 RULE CCXXIL Or, or nor, as contrasted with 
and, should be used when w^e would indicate that a prior 
and a subsequent person or thing are to be regarded separate- 
ly or singly ; as, 

James or Henry is at home. JuU a or Eliza is to attend the party. John 
or George was at the Fair. 

689 RULE CCXXIII. ^/ztZ, as contrasted with to and 
yet^ and similar words, should be used when we would in- 
dicate a continuance in the circumstances of the narration; 
as, 



370 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

James was taken sick ; and, lingering some time, died. The army was 
fiercely attacked ; anc?, after fighting vaUantly for some time, surrendered. 

690 RULE CCXXIV. ^w^ and ye^, and similar words, 
contrasted with and, should be used when we would indi- 
cate a change in the circumstances of the narration ; as, 

James was taken sick, but he soon recovered. The army was attacked, 
yet, after hours of hard fighting, the assailants were driven back. 

691 RULE CCXXV. Two or more singular names, de- 
noting different persons or things, and connected by and^ but 
not preceded by each, or every, require succeeding names, 
substitutes and asserters, referring to them, to be in the plu- 
ral form ; as, 

James and Henry are to visit us to-morrow. They will be here by ten. 

692 RULE CCXXVL Two or more singular names, 
denoting the same person or thing, though connected by 
and, require singular asserters referring to them ; as, 

My guide, my comfort, and my friend, 
Has slept to wake no more. 
" The Father of his country is no more — the warrior, the statesman, 
and the sage, has gone to his eternal rest." 

693 RULE CCXXVII. Singular names, though con- 
nected by and, if preceded by each or every, should have 
the singular form of the substitute or asserter in the same 
simple sentence, or the same member of the compound sen- 
tence ; as. 

Every officer and soldier was induced, by hunger, to think of Aun- 
selforAj' Each sailor and soldier was seen doing Aisduty, in saving 
the stores of the hospital. a 

a Two or more singular names, in circumstances mentioned by the fore- 
going rule, have plural substitutes in the next simple sentence, or the next 
member of the compound sentence ; as, Every man, woman, and child was 
taken ; but they were all well treated by their captor. They remained in 
captivity some weeks : but they were finally liberated, and allowed to re- 
turn home. 

594 RULE CCXXVIIL Two or more singular names 
or substitutes, connected by or, nor, not, or as well «.v, should 
have singular names, substitutes, and asserters, in the same 
simple sentence, or the same member of a compound sen- 
tence ; as, 

Neither John nor Seth is dishonest. Henry or Samuel is expected home 
to-night. George, as well as Horace, is at school, a 
a In the next simple sentence, or the next member of a compound sen- 



—CoTiTiectives] syntax. 371 

tence, the plural substitutes should be used ; as, Neither Harriet or Mary is 
averse to labor ; for they were early accustomed to do their own work. 

695 RULE CCXXIX. No, not, and yiever, respective- 
ly require or, as the connective, after them ; as, 

A'o gold or silver was found in the mine. We should not pretend to 
knowledge which we do not possess ; or be afraid to ask of those who are 
wiser than ourselves. We should never in youth do what can afterwards 
cause regret ; or forget, in age, that we have, ourselves, been young.a 

a jYo, prefixed to a name to constitute a compound name, requires the 
same connective ; as, JYb-body will accompany you, or stay with me. 

696 RULE CCXXX. Never connect, by o?\ or ?2or, two 
or more subjective words, relating to the same asserter, in 
the declarative mode ;* if taken separately, each subjective 
word would require a different form of the asserter ; as, 

Neither you nor I am or are well. Either he or you is or are to gohome. 
Corrected — Neither are you well, nor am I. Either he is to go home, or 
you are. [The second asserters, thus used, are substitute asserters.]a 

a In sentences made interrogative by the use of the interrogative mode, 
the asserter may have, relating to it, ttvo or more subjective words of dif- 
ferent characteristics : the asserter agreeing with the first subjective word, 
di7'ect ; and the other being in the subjective, wdirect, according to Analyt- 
ical Rule I, part 2. 

697 RULE CCXXXL What though, although, and 
though, may, alike, be used as suppositive terms, (or terms 
introducing suppositive remarks ;) but what though is the 
strongest or boldest expression ; although is next in strength, 
and though is the mildest of the three ; as, 

" What though" ] 
Although I 

Though \- " on homely fare we dine," 
Wear hoddinf gray, and all that ; 
(Give fools their silks, and knaves their wine,) 
A man is a man for all J that. — burns. 

698 RULE CCXXXIL In employing what though, or 
although, and though, in succession, use what though or al- 
though first, and though last ; as, 

What though not all of mortal ofl^spring 
Can attain the height of envied life : 
Though on]y few possess patrician treasures, 
Or imperial state; &c. &c. akenside. 

* The negative compounds, Tio-thing, no-hody, taken as entire words, are 
exceptions to the latter part ol 182, p 102 ; but the mere names, without 
no, would not be exceptions. 

t Coarse, home-spun. X For-all, as here used, is a relative, with the ad- 
name substitute that depending on it. See 336, p 1.96. 



S72 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

699 RULE CCXXXIII. If, (not though, although, or 
what though,) should be used to introduce a condition — and 
though, although, or ichat though, (not if,) to introduce 
what is supposed and admitted, or conceded ;as5 

i/" James will carry me home, I will give him a dollar, i/^ Helen stud- 
ies, she will improve. Though wealth may secure the comforts of life, it 
can not, of itself, secure happiness. a 

a Though is to be used where that which is supposed, is admitted or con- 
ceded ; and if, where what is supposed, is not admitted or conceded ; as, 

*♦ Even though James is perfectly innocent," [this being admitted,] " he 
may be in prison many months, from the inattention of the ministers of jus- 
tice." 

" Even if James is perfectly innocent," (which may, or may not be true,) 
*' he may lie in prison many months from the inattention of the ministers of 
justice." 

b if may be used in the sense of whether or not ; as, *• I asked John if 
he had seen Seth. I inquired of him if he had met any one on the way. I 
asked Hannah z/she would lend me her umbrella. 



IIVTERROGATIVES— ADVERBS. 

700 RULE CCXXXIY. An interrogative should be u- 
sed without other words following it and referring to the 
same fact, wherever it can express the ideas intended ; as, 

James will visit New York and the states east of the Hudson. When ? 
We should detest vice, yet pity and seek to relieve its victims. Why ? (not 
Why should we ? or, Why should we do this }) 



REPLIERS— ADVERBS. 

701 RULE CCXXXV. A replier should be used alone, 
after a sentence expressing the interrogation, fact, or event, 
whenever it can, alone, give a full reply to a foregoing re- 
mark ; as, 

John : will you injure William ? JVo— (not, JVo ,• I will not, &c.) Will 
Henry stoop to deception ? Aeucr— (not, J\ o ; he will never stoop, &c. 
Can mortal man withhold his thoughts from the all-pervading mind of his 
Creator 7 JVo. Should speakers and writers, at all times, aim to improve 
the heart while they are endeavoring to inform the understanding 1 Cer- 
tainly. Can man annul any of his obligations to his jNIaker, his fellow-crea- 
tures, or himself ? Certainly not. 



— Prefixes, ^c] syntax. 373 

EXCLAMATIO]\'S— INTERJECTIONS. 

702 RULE CCXXXVI. Place the exclamation imme- 
diately before the particular word, or phrase, or sentence, de- 
noting the idea, or train of ideas which excites the emotion 
to be expressed ; as, 

" We are hastening — we are hastening, 
O HOW SWIFTLY, to our end." 

O who would leave this humble state 
For all the pride of all the great! — burns. 
*• Absalom ! my son I Would to God that 1 had died for thee.* 'a 
a Adieu, Farewell, Good-bye, &c. &c. as exclamations, are used with- 
out reference to any particular word employed in a sentence. 



PREFIXES "AND SUFFIXES. 
703 Prefixes, 
a A, with its French meaning, signifies at, on, or in, that which 
is expressed by the other part of the word ; as in a-shore, a-drift, 
a-float, a-sleep, a-board. 

b Ad usually signifies to, and often exchanges its d, for a let- 
ter of the same kind that begins the next syllable ; as in ac/-dict, 
ac?-duce, ac-cede, a/-fix, a/-lude, aw-nex. 

c A, with its Latin meaning, and ah, and ahs, mean from or 
by ; as, a-vert, a6-duce, a6-breviate, a6s-tract. 

d Con means with or together, and frequently exchanges its n, 
for a letter of the same kind as that which begins the next sylla- 
ble ; as, co«-nect, co?i-solidate, cow-verse, coMect. 
e Contra ^ 

I > mean against, or opposed to ; as in contra-^ici, con- 
Anii ) ^ra-vene, aw?i-repubhcan, aw^i-slavery, anfj-ma- 
sonry, anti-dote. 

f Dis, means to sever, separate, or thwart, or the opposite of 
what the rest of the word indicates ; as in (/is-connect, dis-umi^, 
<Zis-please, c?i5-relish, d!is-appoint. — [We maybe c?is-appointed of 
a thing by failing to secure or attain it ; and cZis-appointed in a 
thing which we have obtained, by its being different from what 
we expected it to be.] 

[g Dis-connected, means taken or separated from connection ; 
and MK-connected means merely, not connected. The former in- 
32 



374 SYNTAX. [Synthesis 

dicates that the thing mentioned was once connected. The lat- 
ter does not ; but merely refers to its present state.] 

h E and ex generally mean out qf^ or from ; as in c-duce, e- 
ject, €a:-tract, ex-communicate. 

i Fore ^ 

I > mean before ; as in /ore-tell, /ore-run, fore-see, an- 
Ante ) ^e-cedent, aw/e-date, a72?e-past, an/e-diluvian. 

j Ge me^ins relating to the earth ; asin (re-ography, G^e-ology. 

k In means in, into, not, or against, and frequently exchanges 
its n for m, or a letter of the same kind that begins the next syllable ; 
as in iw-nate, zTi-herent, zTz-dict, i«-convenient, m-possible, zMude. 

/ Ob means against or upon; and sometimes exchanges its b 
for another letter ; as in o6-struct, o6-trude, op-pose, op-position. 

m Pre means before ; as in jt?re-dict, jore-lude, ^T-e-sume, pre- 
fer, pre-science. 

n Re means again, back, or repetition; as in re-sume, re-in- 
vest, T-e-turn, re- assume, re-ply. 

Se means aside or apart from ; as in se-duce, 5e-clude. 

p Sub means under, from, or after ; as in sw6-structure, sub- 
tract, SM^-scribe, SM6-terranean, 5w6-join. 

q Super ^ 

I > mean on, upon, above, over, or in addition to; as 
Sur ) in st^per-scription, sz^^er-scribe,* swr-pass, sur- 
mount, sur-plus, swr-plice, swr-name. 

r Trans means beyond, from, ox from — to ; as in ^ra/zs-Atlan- 
tic, ^raws-marine, ^roTZS-itive asserters : [asserters denoting facts 
extended from the subjects to the objects.] See XXIII, p 32. 
704 Suffixes. 

a Able, or ible means capable of, liable to, or subject to that 
which the first part of the work indicates, or to which it relates ; 
as in tax-a&/e, sufFer-a5/e, mov-able, eat-a6/e, cred-ible. 

b he usually means doing, denoting, or pertaining to, that 
which the first part of the word indicates ; as in impress-ire, per- 
vers-ire, indicat-ire, interrogat-ire, effect-ire. 

c Ness means abundance of the quality which the first part of 
the word indicates, or consisting in that quality ; as in good-Tiess, 
wicked-ness, great-ness, slow-?iess. [See note b, p 58.] 

d Jon, ^ 

Ing, 01 > added to the primary form of the asserter, makes the 
Ation, ) name (abstract,) of the action which the asserter 

* See 492-3, p 329, and 495, p 330. 



— Prefixes, ^c] syntax. 375 

attributes to some person or thing ; as in fabricate, fabricatiw^r, fab- 
ricati07i ; vindicate, vindicatingr, vindicatio?* ; dispute, disputin^r, 
disputa/zo/i ; colonize, colonizin(/, coloniza/icm. 

e Ize denotes making, or causing to 6e, that which the first 
part of the word indicates ; as in colon-ize, general-ire, particu- 
lar-ize, Anglicize — [to make or render Angli, Anglo, or English.] 

f Ity is used to constitute the abstract name of the quality, or 
the action which the adname or the asserter attributes to a person 
or thing ; as in prosper, prosper-i^y ; perplex, perplex-i^^ ; duc- 
tile, ductil-i^z/ ; flexible, flexibil-i/?/ ; able, abil-i/y. 

g Ous usually signifies pertaining to, what is indicated by the 
rest of the word ; as in hazard, hazard-ows; prosper, prosper-OMS.*(z 

705 Prefixes and Corresponding Relatives. 



ASSERTERS. 


Relatives 


j3-vert 


from 


.j3i-stract 


from 


Jlb-duce 


from 


Ad-here 


to 


.>3fr-breviate, to short 


' > from . 


en by taking 


.5(Z-dict 


to 


^f-fix 


to 


Con-verse 


with 


Con-nect 


with 


Cffr-respond 


with 


Con-cm, with a per- 


\- 


son 


Con-Me 


in 


£z-traet 


from 


B-ject 


from 


Jn-here 


to 


Ob-tTiide 


upon 


Op-pose 


to 


Re-intn 


to 


Pre-fer 


to 


iJe-ply 


to 


iJe-pose 


in 


Se-cede 


from 


^e-clude 


from 


Sub-txact 


from 


Super-sciihe 


on 


Trans-cribet 


from 


Trans-late 


from 



Names. 


Relatives. 




A-version 


to something. 


j36-stract 


of or from 


(( 


./36-diiction 


from 


" 


Ad-heience 


to 


u 


^&-breviation 


of 


a 


^<i-diction 


to 


u 


^/■-fixture 


to 


a 


Con-versation 


with 


i' 


Co7j-nexion or 


with 


" 


Co7i-nection 




Cor-respondence 


with 


« 


CoTi-currence, with ) . 
one ( ^" 


" 


Co?i-fidence 


in 


u 


£2-tract or 
£i-traction 


> of or from 


u 


JS-jection 


from 


u 


/?i-herence 


to 


" 


OZ»-trusion 


upon 


" 


Op-position 


to 


u 


iJs-turning 


to 


" 


Pre-ference 


to 


<i 


Pe-plicatioa 


to 


" 


/?e-posing 


in 


" 


.Se-cession 


from 


« 


.Se-clusiott 


from 


u 


^Mi-traction, [of 
something] 


> from 


u 


S?fper-scription 


on 


(( 


TraiLS-cript 


)of 
1 from 


" 


Trans-cription 


a 


Tra?!s-lation 


from 


" 



*a 95° More space can not be given to prefixes and suffixes. The student of the Eng- 
lish language would derive advantage from studying " Town's Analysis" or some sim- 
ilar work, to make himself familiar with the principles of derivation. 

* For a critical knowledge of particular words, of nearly the same, yet different, 
meaning, the student should procure, and study with great care, " Crabbe's Synonyms.^* 

t The s of the last syllable [scribe,] is omitted, in the compound. 



376 PROSODY. [ProTmnciation'} 

PROSODY 

706 Treats of Utterance, Punctuation, (including characters that 
are not regarded as letters,) the use of Capital letters, and Versi- 
fication. 

PART I. 

UTTERANCE 

707 Is vocal expression, and may be divided into two parts j 
Pronunciation, and Elocution. 

PRONUNCIATION 

708 Regards the speaking of the sounds of letters, syllables, 
and words. 

709 Rule I. Give each letter which is not mute or silent, its 
distinct sound ; at least, so far as by the utmost care, it is possible 
to sound it distinctly in connection with others.* 

710 Rule II. Give each syllable of a word its own sound ; 
yet do not give an equally full stress or accent to all ; but allow 
one syllable to bear a greater stress of voice or force of utterance 
than another.* 

711 Rule III. In pronouncing, follow the accentuation o{ 
words as given by our best lexicographers ; as,, 

Ab-6re-vi-ate, com-mem-o-rate, coMege, com-js^e-tion. 

ELOCUTION 

712 Treats of the speaking of words, when arranged in sen- 
tences ; and sentences, when arranged in a discourse. 

713 Rule IV. Speak with perfect distinctness every word of 
a sentence, varying the emphasis of the different words according 
to the nature of the ideas which they present. « 

a Give the full emphasis only to those words which form the more prominent fea- 
tures of a sentence or discourse. 

714. The sense of the expression in some sentences can be 
varied by changing the emphasis from one word to another. 

715 Rule V. Be careful to adapt the emphasis to the expres- 
sion of the right idea. 

Examples: /saw William's father, where he had seen him. [This 
would indicate that I saw William's father where William had seen him.] 
I saw William's father where he had seen him: [This would indicate that 
I saw William's father, where the father had seen William.] 

* Nothing can excuse the violation of these two rules ; for however much the French 
and some other lanjiuafres may allow the syllables- of a word, and different words, to 
be blended, and their distinct pronunciation to be lost, the English language req^uires, 
In letters, and syllables, and words, a distinct articulation. 



[ Punttuatiori] prosody. 377 

716 Rule VI. Speak with perfect distinctness, yet in a mid- 
dle tone, the ordinary parts of a discourse ; and, as occasion may 
require, (and according to the sentiment,) elevate or depress your 
voice.* 

717 {ji^^Be sure to let the emphasis be adapted to the sense — 
is the best direction that can be given for the utterance of words 
and sentences.* 

718 Rule VII. In reading poetry, give the full pauses of 
prose ; and in addition, make a pause of half the length of acom- 
mat at the end of each line that does not end with a comma or 
another pause ; as, 

Oh I many loved her — silent sadness flows 
In tears that fall where she will tread no more : 
Yet why, why, mourn ? In light, her spirit rose, 
By angels guarded, to a better shore. — G, Martin. 

Of all the causes that conspire to blind 
Man's erring judgement, and misguide the mind ; 
What the weak head, with strongest bias, rules, 
Is pride, the never-failing vice of fools, — Pope; 

Of rest, was Noah's dove bereft, 
When with impatient wing she left 

That safe retreat, the ark : 
Giving her vain excursion o'er, [over] 
The disappointed bird, once more 

Explored the sacred bark. — Cotton'. 



PART 11. 

PUNCTUATION 

719 Is dividing sentences and separating the words of senten- 
ces, by pauses which show more clearly the closer or more distant 
relations of ideas or sentiments to each other. 

720 The principal characters with which written sentences are 
marked, are 

The Comma, (,) Interrogation, (?) Hyphen, (-) Section, {%) 

Semicolon, (;) Exclamation, (I) Caret, (a) Blank, ( ) 

Colon, (:) Parentheses, () Double comma, (') Asterisk and oth- 

Period, (.) Brackets, [] Index, {^) er marks, (*t$ll) 

Dash, (— ) Apostrophe, (') Paragraph, (IT) Brace, ('-•-'"-^) 

THE COMMA 

721 Directs the making of a pause of a second in duration, or 

* The violation of these rules is productive of the worst consequences. The hu- 
man mind is so constituted that it can not always be excited without cause : and wheth- 
er a speaker is always sounding at the highest key of his voice, or la a middle, or un- 

t See " The Comma," 721, above. 
32* 



378 PROSODY. iPtmciuaiion^ 

less, according to the nature of the subject, and the general slow- 
ness or rapidity of the speaker's delivery. 

722 Rule I. Several words of any class, having the same re- 
lation, require a comma after each one which is not followed by a 
connective; as, 

William, Henry, Seth and Ira were forward in all literary pursuits. 

723 Rule II. When the words are very emphatic, the com- 
ma should follow even a word that has a connective after it ; as, 

"I am persuaded that neither principalities, nor powers; things present, 
nor things to come : nor life, nor death ; will separate me from the love of 
God." 

724 Rule III. When one name is given in addition to, and 
explanatory of, another name, a comma should follow each ; as, 

Patrick Henry, ' the Orator of Nature,' was the first elected governor of 
Virginia. •« Child of the Sun, refulgent Summer, comes, "a 

a A general name, not emphatic, and not preceded by an emphatic word relatin!» to 
it, should not be followed by a comma, if the name consists of one word, and stands 
before the word which it is used to explain ; a^, I met my friend Mr. Perkins in Uti- 
ca. I saw my brother James Wilson at school. If the order of these names was re- 
versed, commas would be used between them ; as. I met jl/r. Perkins, my friend, in 
Utica. I saw James Wilson, my brother, at school. 

h A simple substitute, of the second person, followed by a general name of explana- 
tion, should not have a conruua after it; as. " Ye winds that have made me your 
sport," &c. '• Ye princes, rulers, all adore." 

725 Rule IV. A name, or a substitute should have a comma 
after it when an asserter in the dependent mode comes between 
the name or substitute and its asserter in some other mode ; as, 

Harriet, to accomplish all she has promised, 77m5^ begin her task at once . 
" Bonaparte, wrapped in the solitude of his own originality, sat, grand, 
gloomy, and peculiar, a sceptered hermit, on the throne." 

726 Rule V. A name or substitute, followed by an adname 
or an appendant phrase, between that and its asserter, should have 
a comma after it, and one after the adname or the appendant 
phrase ; as, 

Charity, decent, modest, easy, kind, 
Softens the high, and rears the abject mind. 

Hiram, with his sisters, attends school. Hayriet, aloke, and 
pensive, turned to her studies. 

727 Rule VI. Any word, except a modifier or a connective, 
coming between a subjective word or phrase, and its asserter, re- 
quires a comma next before the asserter ; as, 

der tone, the monotony can not fail to defeat the object in view : to lull the physical 
and mental powers, and deaden every feelin? of interest which may at first have been 
excited by the subject of the discourse. All persons are taught by instinct that the 
modulations of the voice should be different in expressing the feelinizs of mildness, be- 
nignity, and affection, from those which it should assume when giving vent to senti- 
ments or feelings of anger, ambition, boldness, or magnanimity. 



{Punctuation^ prosody. 379" 

The man whom John accosted, has returned. That gentleman, coming 
in the rain, should be invited in. 

728 Rule VII. An emphatic modifier, coming between a word 
in the subjective case, and its asserter, or between the auxiliar, 
and the principal asserter, requires a comma before it, and another 
after it; as, . 

John is completely discouraged . He must, consequently^ be very wretch- 
ed. [Any emphatic modifier requires a comma after it.] 

729 Rule VIII. Appendant phrases, or single words, when 
not standing in regular prosaic order, require commas after each 
of them ; as, 

•♦ Then lambs, with wolves, shall graze the verdant mead ; 
And boys, in flowery bands, the tiger lead." 

730 Rule IX. Words repeated, for the sake of greater em- 
phasis, require a comma after each of them ; as, 

Never, no, never, will just Heaven accuse 

Her who for virtue, poor, can gold and fame refuse. 

731 Rule X. A particular name, or a simple substitute, of 
the second person, should have a comma after it, when in the sub- 
jective case, and followed by a connective substitute ; as, 

James, ivho, while here, assisted his father, has gone out. • Thou, who 
dost mark the sparrow's fall, avert the death of sin.' 

7.32 Rule XI. A substitute phrase, in the subjective case, 
before an asserter, must be followed by a comma ; as, 

To be wise, good and useful, is the privilege and duty of all. To envy 
another's talents, fortune, or lot, is to admit our own inferiority. To be 
good, is to be happy. 

733 Rule XII. When a subjective word, indirect, follows 
the asserter of the subjective, direct, denoting a different person 
or thing, the indirect subjective should be followed by a comma ; as, 

" Faith worketh patience ; and patience y experience ; and experience 
hope." 

734 Rule XIII. Words following in couplets, or in triplets, 
should have a comma after each couplet or triplet ; as, 

James and William, George and Seth, Mary and Hannah, and Julia and 
Helen, are to be of the party. a 

a When the words are very emphatic, a coiimia should follow the first w^ord of each 
couplet, and a semicolon, the second ; [see " the Semicolon ;"] as, " Neither reward, 
nor toil, unpaid ; nor hope, nor fear ; nor ambition, nor ease ; nor popular applause, nor 
public disgrace ; shall ever cause me to do a wrong thing, or neglect a right one." 

735 Rule XIV. Different members of a compound sentence 
should be separated by a comma, when one member is not used to 
show the time or place of the fact expressed by the other ; as, 

James must go home, that George may return. Henry having gone West, 
it was necessary for Seth to remain at home. 



380 PROSODY. iPunctuation'] 

THE SEMICOLON, COLON, AND PERIOD. 

736 The semicolon indicates a pause double in length of time 
to that of the comma. 

737 A period is used at the end of a discourse ; or when oc- 
curring in a discourse, at the end of a sentence. The pause de- 
noted by it, should be about five times longer than that of a comma. 

738 The intermediate degrees between a comma and period, 
are marked by the semicolon and the colon ; the former being u- 
sed when the pause to be made is nearer, in duration of time, to 
the comma, than to the period ; and the latter, when the pause 
should be nearer to the period than to the comma. 

739 Rule XV. A name of the second person, and in the sub- 
jective case, direct, must have a semicolon after it ; as, 

James ; study. Seth ; hand me that book. John ; hear me. Robert ; 
attend to your work. 

740 Rule XVI. A word of the second person, in the inde- 
pendent case, standing before a sentence, requires a colon after it ; 
as, John : I saw your brother last evening. 

741 Rule XVII. The period is to be used when the senti- 
ment expressed by one sentence has not an immediate connection 
with that expressed by another ; as, 

" He spake ; and it was done. He commanded ; and it stood fast." 

742 Rule XVIII. The period is to be used after each abbre- 
viation of a word; as, N. Y. S. C. 

743 Rule XIX. The dash is to be used where there is an ab- 
rupt change or break in a sentence ; as, 

" Give me both gold and ease to make nie blessed." Fool— sure am I, 
to think of bliss in these. Bliss must be — [yes, it must,] within myself, or 
not at all. 

744 Rule XX. The interrogative sign is placed at the close 
of a direct interrogative sentence ; as, 

William, where did you leave James ? Is Henry well ?* 

745 Rule XXI. The exclamatory sign is placed after an ex- 
clamation, or at the end of an exclamatory, or a very emphatic 
sentence ; as, 

Absalom ? my son I ! Liberty ! Alas ! I fear for life. See on, let- 
ter n, p 217. 

746 Rule XXII. The parentheses include the expression of 

* In reading or speaking an interrogative simple sentence, beginning with an assert- 
er, (either principal or auxiliar.) but not referring to a foregoing sentence, close it with 
a raised tone of voice. The falling inflection or tone is to close such a sentence be- 
ginning with any other part of si>eech. 



IPunctuatiori] prosody. 381 

something suggested by the train of remarks ; and which, although 
not absolutely necessary to the sense of the discourse, tends to 
throw some light upon the subject ; as, 

Time is our best estate. On that, (which is our only hope,) hangs our 
present and future happiness. 

747 Rule XXIII. The brackets are used to enclose explan- 
atory remarks which do not belong to the chain of ideas or events, 
but may be necessaiy to a right understanding of a discourse ; as, 

•' A gigantic statue having been seen at the niouth of the cavern, it was 
resolved that we [the French consul and myself,] should pay it a visit." 

748 Rule XXIV. The apostrophe, in form like a comma a- 
bove the line, is used in the place of some letter or letters ; as. 

E'er, for ever; ne'er, for never. [The vowels have the same sound as 
though the consonants were expressed.] 
It is also used in making the possessive forms ; as, John's book. 

749 Rule XXV. The hyphen is used to join two words ; as, 
church-yard ; or to keep distinct what should be separate sylla- 
bles ; as, zo-ology, co-operation. 

750 Rule XXVI. The caret is a sign to show where the 
words that are interlined must be read ; as, 

last 
John came some time during the week. 

A 

[The necessity of using this sign at all, shows great inattention.] 

751 Rule XXVII. The inverted double comma, and the 
double apostrophe, as a sign of quotation, include words that have 
been taken from another author ; as, 

" Do to others, as ye would that they should do to you," is termed the 
Saviour's Golden Rule. 

752 Rule XXVIII. Where you quote from a quotation, use 
only a single comma and apostrophe. 

753 Rule XXIX. The index or hand, ({jtf^) directs the read- 
er to some remark worthy of particular attention. 

754 Rule XXX. The paragraph (IT) stands at the beginning 
of a new subject. [This is used almost exclusively in the old e- 
ditions of the Bible.] 

755 Rule XXXI. The sectional sign (§) is placed, as in law 
books, at the beginning of a section. 

756 Rule XXXII. The blank, or ellipsis, ( — ) is used where 
either some of the letters of a word, or some of the words of a 
sentence, are omitted. 

757 Rule XXXIII. The hiatus (***) is used to indicate the 
omission of one or more sentences of a discourse. [See p 384. [ 



382 PROSODY. IPunctuaUoTi] 

758 Rule XXXIV. The asterisk (*) and other marks 
(*tt||) '®^6r ^^6 reader to the margin, or bottom of the page, for 
some explanatory remarks. 

759 Rule XXXV. The brace (z^-^^) includes words ex- 
pressing several matters or things which sustain a like relation to 
somethmg else. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

760 Rule XXXVI. The substitute I, and the exclamation 
O ; the first word of every sentence in prose, and the first word of 
every line in poetry, should begin with a capital ; as, also, the 
names used to particularize the Deity : and all other particular 
names ; including the names of the sciences ; as, Grammar, Ge- 
ology, Astronomy : adnames derived from particular names ; as, 
Parisian, English :*a and the important words constituting the 
names of theories or essays ; as, " Dyckman's Manual," " Eng- 
lish Reader," " Christian Pattern," and the names of other things 
when used very emphatically ; as, 

" Know, then, thyself; presume not God to scan : 
The proper study of mankind is Man." 

and every quotation following a colon ; 

Always remember this maxim : " Time is our best estate." 

761 (jf^ Important Directions. ^^ 
Write your piece, whatever it may be, in the same style that 
you would speak it. 

Read the piece as you would speak it, yourself, in conversa- 
tion, or public declamation — and 

Having learned the time and influence attached to the forego- 
ing marks, (^punctuate the piece so that a stranger, by fol- 
lowing the directions which your punctuation would give, would 
read the piece, just as you would speak it. a 

a 90°The foregoing three general rules, carefully studied and obeyed, will be of more 
benefit than all the rules before them, would be, without these. 

*a The following are exceptions : Adnames derived from the names of 
the cardinal points ; as, East, West — eastern^ western — Adnames derived 
from the names of the four seasons ; za^Autumrit Winter — autumnal, vAn- 
try : and adnames derived from the names of the different sciences ; as. 
Grammar, Geology — grajnmatiCf grammatical — geologic, geological. 

b Grammatic should be used to mean, relating or pertaining to Grammar; 
and grammaticdX, to mean, according to the principles and rules of Gram- 
mar. ** A grammatic blunder," is a correct phrase — while '« A grammat- 
ical blunder," would be a contradiction in terms ; and would be really a 
grammatic error— diU error considered in relation to Grammar. 



[Versification] prosody. 383 

PART III. 

VERSIFI CATION 

762 Has been regarded as a part of Prosody ; not so much 
from the supposition that directing a person how to become a po- 
et is a part of grammar ; as from the fact that, with respect to the 
choice and arrangement of words, greater attention is necessary 
in poetry than in prose. The sum of this part of Prosody may 
be given in few words. 

RHYME 

763 Is the correspondence, in sound, of the closing part of one 
line with that of another ; as, 

" The" grog-er* " murders child and wije: 
Nor matters it a pin, 
Whether he stabs them with his knifes 
Or starves them with his gin. "a 

a Here, the third line is said to rhyme with the first, and the fourth 
with the second. 

A FOOT, 

764 In poetry, consists of one accented syllable, and the un- 
accented ones, sounded in immediate connection with it ; as, 

Let not I this weak \ \in-knoiv \ ing hand, 

Pre-sume | thy bolts \ to throw; 
And deal | dam-wa | tion round \ the land. 

On each \ I judge | thy foe. — Pope. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

765 Be careful to have the corresponding lines of a stanza a- 
gree as to the number of feet in them ; and the number and order 
of the unaccented syllables, which, with the accented one, com- 
pose each foot — and 

Be sure to arrange your words in such a manner as not to ren- 
der it necessary to accent or emphasize syllables or words, in po- 
etry, as they should not be pronounced in prose ; and make the 
last foot of each line rhyme with the last foot of its corresponding 
line ; as, 

Here lies a poor youth who called drink-'mg his bliss ; 
And was ru-med by sa^z-ing, ' What harm is in this V 
Let each passer-ft'?/, to this «"-ror, ^X.-tend.> 
And learn of poor Bick^ to re-wewz-ber the end. a — H. More. 
a These words, in poetic measure, require only the accent and emphasis 
that they would require in prose composition. Thus ; 

Here lies a poor youth, who called drink-\xi% his bliss : and was rw-ined 
by 5ai/-ing, ' What harm is in this V Let each passer-5y zi-tend to this 
€r-ror ; and learn of poor Bick^ to re-7newi-ber the end. 

* One who sells intoxicating drinks, as a beverage. 



384 rhetoric, 

error: 



Or sunset, streaming through a gothic sky-light, 
Or distant lightning, on the horizon by night, a— Byron. 
a Here it is seen that the relative hy is forced into a place where empha- 
sis should be given ; v^^hile yety in itself, it has no claim to emphasis. 



RHETORIC 

766 Treats generally and particularly of the adaption of words 
to the expression of ideas ; and allows words to be used different 
from their strict literal meaning. 

PART I. 

767 Orthography treats of the nature of separate, distinct 
sounds, with letters as their signs ; 

768 Etymology treats of the nature of words as representa- 
tives of ideas, their classification, changes, and derivations: 

769 Syntax treats of the choice, arrangement, and relations 
of words, in sentences: 

770 Prosody treats of the pronunciation of the sounds of let- 
ters, words, and sentences ; the pauses or rests, between words 
and sentences, and other matters pertaining to the modulations of 
the voice ; and versification : while 

RHETORIC 

771 Sits as supervisor of the whole, giving directions for the 
combination and use of all the constituent principles of the lan- 
guage ; adapting them to the attainment of the objects of commu- 
nication. 

772 The grand requisite for the attainment of this end, is a good 
taste, or such mental and moral acquirements as shall enable us 
to discern, on all occasions, what language is best adapted to en- 
gage the attention ; to enliven the imagination ; to inform and con- 
vince the understanding ; to move the heart ; and thus to control 
the will, and guide the actions of men. 

773 The first step towards the formation of a good discourse, 
is a thorough knowledge of the subject on which we would speak 
or write ; its traits in the abstract ; its effects, immediate, col- 
lateral, and contingent, on the various departments of life ; and 



RHETORIC. 385 

particularly its adaptation to the circumstances of the community 
whose members we would address ; together with a consciousness, 
in ourselves, of the importance of the subject of the essay. 

774 For the right expression of a discourse, nine principles 
should be carefully regarded : viz. Perspicuity, Precision, Purity, 
Fullness, Propriety, Union, Harmony, Strength, znd Euphony. 

PERSPICUITY 

775 Consists in clearness of expression, or freedom from any 
thing like obscurity. It is the prime principle of Grammar ; one 
which can not, on any account, be violated with impunity.* 

776 Rule I. Choose and arrange both the words and senten- 
ces of a discourse in such a manner that their signification shall 
be distinct ; that their relation to, their influence and dependence 
on, each other, may be so clear and determinate that the meaning 
of the whole shall be obvious at the first view. 

error: 

"Hail, holy light ! offspring of Heaven, first born, 
Or, of the Eternal, co-eternal beam I 

May I, unblamed, express thee ? 

****** 

Or hearest thou, rather, pure etherial stream, 
AVhose fountain who shall tell ?" 

PRECISION 

777 Consists in making every expression have some direct 
point and bearing. [This is opposed to ambiguity.] It renders the 
meaning and intention of each remark obvious and certain ; and 
by that means gives force to the sentiment itself. 

"778 Rule II. Choose and arrange words in such a manner 
that, while the intended meaning shall be perfectly obvious, no 
other can possibly be drawn from the expression. [This always 
may, and always should be done.] 

ERRORS: 

The retreat of General Macdonald was followed by the seizure of his 
dominions by the king of Naples. — dlison. [Whose dominions .' This sen- 
tence represents them as being the generaPs ; though we learn from the 
whole history that they were really the king's dominions, re-taken by the 
king.] 

"The list of questions subjoined at intervals is not intended for the use, 
much less for the direction, of the teacher, who, if competent, will always 
put such questions to the pupil as will enable him to ascertain whether he 
understands what he has studied, or to draw his attention to any particular 

* To speak or AVTite, without beinfi able to represent our ideas in such a manner as 
render them intelligible, would be, to defeat the very object which we havein\iew. 

33 



3S6 RHETORIC. 

point which he may wish to illustrate." — Bullions* Grammar, (last edit.) 
p 7. [Which is meant, the teacher, or the pupil, by the words him^ he, 
he, his, he .?] 

PURITY 

779 Is opposed to the use of words which are not embodied in 
the English vocabulary ; and which, of course, can not be under- 
stood by those who understand only the English language. 

780 Rule III. Use no words but those which belong to the 
English language, and are, in fact, English words : or those which 
are so derived from English words that their affinity to them will 
leave no doubt of their signification. a 

a The use of foreign and obsolete words can not be too severely cen- 
sured. Such words, for example, as maun, ween,non-chalance, pari pas- 
su beau monde, sangfroid, and hundreds of others that abound in our false- 
ly-termed first rate papers, and other literary productions. 

b When an idea shall be conceived which the English language can not 
represent, we may use words of other languages, if we explain them. 

FULNESS 

781 Consists in expressing every idea, to be communicated, by 
some word appropriately chosen and arranged to represent it : so 
that a sentence shall not be weakened by having any word in it 
overtaxed, in being made to represent too much. 

782 Rule IV. Let every idea be denoted by an appropriate 
word ; so that a sentence may be a full and perfect representation 
of the sentiment to be expressed. 

ERRORS: 

Think not with wind of airy threats 

To awe whom yet with deeds thou canst not. — Milton. 

To whom our great progenitor Thy words, 

Attentive, and with more delighted ear, 

Divine instructor, I have heard. — Ib. 

PROPRIETY 

783 (a) Consists in using, according to their individual mean- 
ing, the words by which a sentiment is to be expressed — in 

{h) Avoiding all vulgarisms, or low words and phrases ; as, 
" get away,'^ " he'^s a good fellow,^' " thafs too bad, anyhow,"" 
&c. &c. — in 

(c) Avoiding the use of unnecessary words ; as, George slip- 
ped up and fell down — in 

{d) Avoiding the use of two negatives in a sentence when we 
wish to express simply a negative ; as, 

Helen will not return to-night, I do not believe. In this example, the 




RHETORIC. 387 

two words, not — not, make the sense affirmative, the same as though nei- 
ther of them had been used, thus : Helen will return to-night, I do 

believe. OC|=In English, we must first affirrn, to make a nega- 
tive ; as, Helen rvill [not] return to-night, I do [not] believe. — [Except 
when the subjective word has the negative sense connected with it ; as, "JVb 
man can give to God a ransom for his brother." "JVothvng has been done 
to recompense the laborer's toil."] 

(e) Two negatives are sometimes elegantly employed to ex- 
press the affirmative sense ; as, I was not zm-mindful of my duty. 
I hope Jane will not be in-attentive to her studies. 

(/) Avoid (when you can) using the same word twice, with 
different meanings, in the same sentence ; as, " The architect 
determined to continue building till the new building'''' [edifice] 
*' should be finished." 

{g) Never allow the relative with, to exert the pluralizing in- 
fluence of and ; as, James, ivith his friends, was [not were,'] to 
visit us. Helen, with Julia and Maria, is, [not are,] to attend 
the party — or, Helen, Julia and Maria are to attend, &c. . 

(A) Avoid all contractions of words : as, haint, for has not, or 
have not ; can't, for can not ; couldnU, for could not, &c. 

(i) Never allow any word except an adname,to comebetween 
a simple direct possessive word, and the name or term denoting 
the thing possessed. 

{k) Use words in the forms, order, and relations which the idi- 
•om of the language requires. 

784 Rule V. Study the language, and the Grammar of the 
language, in all their parts and principles, and express your ideas 
with dignity, and clearness, according to the idiom of the Ian* 
guage. 

errors: 

" The * after the apostrophe is omitted, when theirs? noun has the sound 
of s in each of its tuw last ^last twol syllables, and the second noun be- 
gins with s." Bullions' Grammar, (last edition,) p 105. " Six times fif- 
teen are [is] ninety."— Goold Brown's Grammar, (last edit. )p 54. " Mo- 
ses's rod," G. B. p 277— [JV/oses' rod.] " You are now about ^o €7ifer 
upon \_commence'] one of the most useful and interesting studies," &c. &c. 
Kirkham's Grammar, (last edition,) p 13. "Although there are avast ma- 
ny Ivery many] male children in the world, each one may be called by the 
general name o^boy." Smith's Gram, (last edit.) p 9, " Jflthough'] this 
man is poor, he pays his debts." " If [though'] newspapers are sometimes 
scurrilous, they are, nevertheless, vehicles of much information." From 
" Examples for parsing and imitation," ! in Hazen's Grammar, (last edi- 
tion,) p 217. " They were met by the httle corporal's (as he was called,) 
/tfoop." [The troop of the httle corporal., as he was called.] *' What went 



RHETORIC. 



ye out for to see ?" I went home in order to visit Henry. [Omit for, 
zndi in or der.y a 

HARMONY 

785 Consists in giving a just proportion and symmetry to a 
sentence or discourse. 

786 Rule VI. Assume, as the basis of the discourse, that 
which is either admitted without proof, or that which is capable of 
being proved ; and so arrange and unite the parts of the sentence 
or discourse, that, like a properly constructed edifice, its weighti- 
er matters shall rest, for support, on the more substantial parts of 
the substructure, or foundation ; that every part, perfect and pro- 
portioned, in itself, shall be so united with the predominant trait, 
as to form a just proportion of the whole ; and thereby give to the 
sentence or discourse, 

STRENGTH. 

787 Strength is the result of the combined influence of Perspi- 
cuity, Precision, Purity, Fullness, Propriety, Union, and Har- 
mony. 

788 Rule VII. Be sure to arrange the words of a sentence, 
and the sentences of a discourse, in such a manner that while the 
leading feature shall be obvious, all the qualifying or auxiliary 
parts shall be placed in close connection with those which they are 
tended to explain ; as. 

Errors — *' Nature tells me that I am the image of God, as well as Scrip- 
ture." ' He was born m April, 1775, just three days after the battle of Lex- 
ington, in New York.' ' The young gentleman died of a lingering and pain- 
ful disease, and was buried in the College Cemetery ; whom the general had 
intended for the army.'f 

Corrected — " Nature, as well as Scripture, tells me that I am the image 
of God." " He was born in New-York, in April, 1775 ; just three days 
after the battle of Lexington." The young gentleman whom the general 
had intended for the army, died, of a long and painful disease ; and was bu- 
ried in the College Cemetery. 

EUPHONY 

789 Consists in the pleasing variety, and flow of the sound 



*a When an asserter in the dependent mode, first division, is used after words ex" 
pressing any of the different emotions, this asserter and its attendant words, show the 
cause of these emotions ; as, I regret to hear that you are side. I am glad to learn 
that Helen is to accompany George to the Falls. 

b When the asserter in the dependent mode, first division, is used after words ex- 
pressing mere facts, not emotions, the asserter is sufficient, of itself, to express inten- 
tion or design ; as, I went home to visit Henry. I stiiid there to sec George. 

c The asserter in this mode may be used to express a mere co-incidence of events ; 
as, James arrived just in time to witness the ceremony. 

t All the strength of these sentences is lost by the ?n/.'?-arrangement of the words. 
Such is often the eflect of the wrong arrangement of sentences in a, discourse. 



BHETOEIC. 389 

with the sentiment, produced by a selection of words, whose sounds, 
when separate, and when combined, are in unison with their ideas.* 

790 Rule VIII. Select your words not only in reference to 
their meaning, but also in reference to the effect of the sounds, 
when the words are spoken in connection with others. 

791 Rule IX. Avoid using, in close and unpleasant connec- 
tion, words of similar syllables, or syllables of similar sounds ; as, 

"These differences in valuation may also be increased by the inclination, 
which, without the slightest imputation on their honesty, may arise on the 
part of the appraisers," &c. &c. President's Message, of Dec, 1841. " I 
presume that the preceding part of the jtjrdiminanes was not intended as a 
^rdudeto what fo\\ovfed"—JV€Wspaper, 



PART II . 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC, RULES FOR THEIR USE, &C. 

792 The varieties of representation which, in Rhetoric, are 
called Figures, are twelve in number : Simile, Contrast or An- 
tithesis, Reversion or Metonomy, Synecdoche, Personification, 
Interrogation, Irony, Hyperbole, Imagery or Vision, Apostrophe, 
Exclamation, and Climax. 

SIMILE 

793 Treats of the resemblance of things in their design, char- 
acter, or effects. It is divided into three parts. Comparison, Met- 
aphor, and Allegory. 

794 Comparison is used to show the quality or character of one 
.object or event, by exhibiting its resemblance to another which is 
well understood : as, 

"How sweet are thy words to my taste ! They are sweeter than honey 
in the honey-comb." 

" A soul, immortal, spending all her fires. 
Wasting her strength in strenuous idleness, 
Thrown into tumult, raptured, or alarm 'd, 
By aught Earth's scenes can threaten or indulge, 
Resembles ocean into tempest wrought, 
To waft a feather, or to drown a fly." 

795 Rule I. Never compare things whose resemblance in 

* However near perfection a sentence or discourse may be when otherwise fonned, 
if it is not constructed according to the principles of euphony, it is, at best, imperfect. 
Prose, to be perfect, must have, exercised, the same regard to the accent of syllables, 
emphasis of words, and the number of their syllables, which it is necessary we should 
have in poetr)'. In short, make your poetry the perfection of prose ; and give your 
prose, the life, beauty, and euphony of poetry. 

33* 



390 RHETORIC. 

form, action, character, or effect, is not obvious at the first glance 
of the mind.* 

796 A Metaphor consists in the use of one thing for the re- 
presentation of another whose character or effect is strikingly sim- 
ilar ; as, 

Washington was the main pillar of American Independence . ' I was eyes 
to the blind ; and feet was I to the lame. — Job. The Lord is my rock and 
my fortress. He is my deliverer ; he is my buckler; the horrt of my sal- 
vation, and my high tower. [See 1, 4, of Section V, p 296.] 

797 Rule II. Never blend a literal and a metaphorical ex- 
pression ; or use two metaphors of a different character in the same 
expression ; as, 

Trothal went forth with the stream of his people ; but they met a rock ; 
for Fingal stood unmoved. Broken, they rolled back from his side. Nor 
did they roll in safety, for the spear of the king pursued them.f — ossian. 
I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
Which longs to launch into a bolder strain. J — addison. 
The billows writhe in agonizing play. — montgo3iery.§ 

798 An. Allegory is a continued metaphor, or a narration of 
some event or fact which has a resemblance in all its bearings 
and dependencies to the one which it is brought to illustrate ; as, 

" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the hea- 
then, || [bramble,] and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and 
didst cause it to take root ; and it filled the land ." [The parables of the New 
Testament, ^sop's Fables, and such writings, are allegories.] 

799 Rule III. Never use an allegory which does not repre- 
sent a matter, that, in its connections, has a clear assimilarity to 
the subject which is to be illustrated by it ; or blend an allegorical 
and a literal expression. 

CONTRAST OR ANTITHESIS 

800 Is placing in opposite lights, objects which are really dis- 
similar, that the effect to be produced by contemplating their qual- 
ities, may be heightened. [We compare things which are simi- 

* Comparing things whose resemblance is not obvious, always tends to weaken, rath- 
er than strengthen, the expression. 

t Here, the spear of the king, [literal,] represented as pursuing the waves, [meta- 
phorical,] seems perfectly ridiculous. 

X Here, by a mixed metaphor, the muse is represented, first, as a horse ! [a most clum- 
sy figiue at best,] and next, and immediately afterwards, to carry out that figure, as a 
ship, and that ship, by personification, in a situation not to be allowed, represented as 
longing to launch into a strain, even while regarded as a ship. 

§ This is a strangely inconsistent expression— to represent the billows as writhing in 
agony when playing as a child. 

II The Heathen, here used literally, is a defect in the figure ; for the heathen are rep- 
resented as being cast out, to make room for the vine. 



RHETORIC. 391 

lar ; we contrast things that are unlike, or dissimilar. We com- 
pare j^wrp/e and red — we contrast black and white.] 
*The wicked are overthrown, and ? *^ ( The house of the righteous shall 

are not; } ^ I stand.* 

* The sacrifice of the wicked is an ^ ^ j the prayer of the pure is his de- 
abomination to the Lord ; ) ^ i light.' 
'Truth, crushed to earth, will rise But error, wounded, writhes in 

again ; pain ; 

The eternal years of God are hers; And dies amid his worshippers.' 

REVERSION OR METONOMY, 

801 Is SO reversing words as to use the name of one thing, 
while we mean another thing connected with it ; as, putting the 
cause for the effect, the container for the thing contained, the au- 
thor for his work ; as, 

Which dish do you prefer ? — [meaning, the food of which dish.] Jack- 
son was the salvation of New-Orleans. The chair gave the casting vote. 
The President convened both houses of Congress. The city was alarmed. 
The country was aroused. The land plows hard. 

A Deity believed, is joy begun ; 

A Deity ador'd, is joy advanc'd ; 

A Deity belov'd, is joy matur'd. — young. 

SYNECDOCHE 

802 Is a figurative expression by which a part of any thing, 
or class of things, is used to represent the whole ; or the whole 
to represent a part ; as, 

*' Humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God." *' Into thy hand 
I commend my spirit." " He has no roof to shelter him from the storm." 
♦' Not she,* with traitrous kiss, the Savior stung : 
Not she denied him with unholy tongue ; 
She, while Apostles shrunk, could danger brave — 
Last at the cross, and earliest at the grave." 

PERSONIFICATION 

803 Is giving, (in imagination,) life, reason, and action, to in- 
animate objects ; as. 

Eternal Hope: when yonder spheres sublime, 

Peal'd their first notes to sound the march of Time; 

Thy joyous youth began ; but not to fade. 

When all the sister planets have decayed. — CAMPBELL.fA 

* She is a substitute for the name woman, in the singular form, and used to represent 
aU woman-kind. 

t-v Objects, grand, and those which are terrific, are usually represented as males ; 
and those which are more lovely, or pleasing to the mind, are represented as females. 
Winter is represented as a male ; the other seasons as females : 
The orxans and seas, as males ; the earth as a female : 
The sun, as a male ; the moon, as a female : 
Error and vice., as males ; truth and virtue, as a female : 
fVar, as a male ; j^eace, as a female ; as [Sec over] 



OV£ RHETORIC. 

804 Rule IV. Whenever objects are personified, use the sub- 
stitutes (when any are to be used,) which are applicable to per- 
sons ; and in addressing a single object, personified, as though by 
a particular name, write the name with a capital letter. 

805 Rule V. Never, in any circumstances, personify a part 
of man's physical organization or structure, although the mind or 
soul may be a fit subject for personification. 

INTERROGATION 

806 Is a mode of expression used to give force to the sentiment 
concerning which the interrogation is made ; to impress more deep- 
ly its truth or impossibility ; as, 

" Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right 1" <* Shall he that con- 
tendeth with the Almighty, instruct him ?" " Hast thou an arm like God's? 
and canst thou thunder with a voice like his." 

807 Rule VI. Never use this figure, and leave the question 
unanswered, except in very spirited discussion, and on a subject 
of the truth or impossibility of which, the hearer or reader can not 
have any doubt. 

IRONY 

808 Is saying one thing and meaning the reverse of what that 
expression would represent : or saying, by way of ridicule, what 
we do not design or desire to have believed, literally ; but only 
regarded more carefully by having the character of the subject of 
the remark contrasted as it is, with what it must have been, to 
make the ironical expression literally true ; as, 

When speaking of the miser, we say, " What a generous-hearted, phi- 
lanthropic man ! What a ^friend to the poor 1" 

809 Rule VII. Never use an ironical expression in such a 
manner as to leave any doubt in the mind of the hearer or reader, 
of its having been intended as ironical. 

HYPERBOLE 

810 Consists in magnifying an object or event, by carrying the 
expression beyond what can be really true ; as, 

*'As some fierce comet of tremendous size, to ^vhich the stars did rever- 
ence, as it passed ; so he through learning, and through fancy took his flight 
sublime ; and on the loftiest top of Fame's dread mountain sat." 

When War his horrid front, presents, 
And shakes his crimsoned steel. 
" Peace o'er the world her olive wand extends, 
And white-robed Innocence from Heaven descends." 
B When you personify an object, and address or mention it as though a particular 
person, begin the name of the object with a Capital Letter ; as, " Prone to the dust 
Oppression shall be hurled." 



RHETORIC. 3»a 

811 Rule VIII. In magnifying objects or events, never men- 
tion for that purpose any thing which has not a real similarity to 
the one to be magnified, as far as the similarity extends.* 

IMAGERY OR VISION 

812 Consists in representing distant objects, or former or future 
events, as though existing or occurring before our eyes. 

Examples . He lies full low, gjored with wounds, and festering in his own 
blood. But he lies in peace. He feels none of the agonies which rend my 
soul with agony and distraction, while I am set up, a spectacle of the un- 
certainty of human affairs. — ddherhal, to the Roman Senate. 
And see ! 

'Tis come, the glorious morn ! the second birth 

Of heaven and earth ! awak'ning nature hears 

The new-creating word, and starts to life, 

In ev'ry heightened form, from pain and death 

For ever free. — Thomson. 

813 Rule IX. [For this figure, and the next two.] Never 
use the figure except when the mind of the hearer or reader shall 
have been prepared for the stronger exercises of sympathy. Be 
particularly careful to guard against its frequent use. 

APOSTROPHE 

814 Consists in addressing objects as though they were really 
present; as, 

" 0, murdered, butchered brother ! 0, dearest to my heart ! now gone 
for ever from my sight." 

Ill-fated White! while life was in its spring ; 
When thy young muse had waved her joyous wing; 
The spoiler swept thy soaring lyre away, 
Which would have sounded an immortal lay — byeon. 

EXCLAMATION 

815 Is a figure used to express the strong emotions of the mind, 
which cannot be described ; as, 

0, the depth of the riches, both of the wisdom and the goodness of God! 
*' glorious hope I bless'd abode !" 

> * Under the head of this figure may be mentioned such expressions, as, 
**I never saw a ?no/-ej9e?"/ec^ master of his art, than the painter West" — 
[giving-, in this manner, the superlative sense, by the use of a negative 
and the comparative form or the word perfect, in combination with more; 
the word perfect, in Rhetorical flourishes, being used in degree as though it 
was not defective or indeclinable. ] So, also, we say, " James is the most 
finished scholar that I have known," &c. &c. Yet even Rhetoric does not 
allow ordinary comparisons, by declining defective names; as, Error — Ira 
is more perfectly kind than Henry— [Ira is much kinder y or more kind than 
Henry.] 



394 RHETORIC. [Comj)osition'] 

! for a pencil dipt in living light, 

To paint tiie agonies that Jesus bore ! 
! for the long-lost harp of Jesse's might, 
To hymn the Saviour's praise from shore to shore. — white. 
[Apply the last foregoing rule to this principle,] 
CLIMAX 

816 Is such an arrangement of the parts of a discourse, which 
"we wish to exhibit in a strong light, as shall gradually and succes- 
sively heighten the subject or train of events to the very summit 
of representation ; that it may wield its full influence ; and sink, 
if sinking is designed, as with the weight and force of a torrent, 
or an ocean wave ; as, 

" Scott fell not, as Byron did, in the flower of youth, with locks prema- 
turely gray, a good name yet to redeem, and at the onset of glorious enter- 
prize. The garner was full when the reaper was called away ; and, sur- 
rounded by all those whom he loved, in the halls himself had founded, 
and in the land where his name was worshipped, without a pang, without a 
struggle, he passed to the eternal life. Sacred be his memory — deathless is 
his name !" 

" Awake, then ; thy Philander calls: awake ! 

Thou, who shalt wake, when the creation sleeps ; 

When, like a taper, all these suns expire ; 

When Time, like him of Gaza in his wrath, 

Plucking the pillars that support the world, 

In Nature's ample ruins lies entomb'd ; 

And Midnight, universal Midnight ! reigns." 



817 REMARKS ON COMPOSITION. 

a The greatest difficulty in writing composition, is a lack of ideas— of general knowl- 
edge. 

b A person who understands a thing fully, seldom fails in the description of it. 

c It is sometimes said, in truth, " I have the ideas but I have not the words to ex- 
press them ;" but it might oftener be said, " I have words enough ; but I lack ideas."' 

d To remedy these defects, common to beginners, let the teacher take subjects with 
which all his scholars must be, to some extent, acquainted— for example, 

e Let the teacher name " Apples,'' as the subject. Let him ask. What is their use 1 
What their varieties of color, taste, &c.— their kinds ? &c. Where do they grow 1 &c. 

/ As the teacher asks the different questions, let the pupils put their respective an- 
swers upon slates ; and then let each one read his own to the school. 

g The difierent kinds of trees, fruits, flowers, and other vegetables might be named, 
according to circumstances. 

h The different kinds of animals might be named— the difterent kinds of edifices or 
buildings ; as, houses, churches, their qualities, cost, &c. 

i The teacher may give before " Composition day" several anecdotes, and see that 
each pupil understands fully all the circumstances pertaining to some one ; then let 
each scholar make his own selection ; and on the day for reading compositions present 
the anecdote of his choice, in his own language. 

j The older student, at first, may adopt the plan pursued by Franklin— that of stud- 
ying, carefully, some essay, and then giving the facts, in the student's own language— 
the teacher requiring him to present the original for comparison. 



iHints, Sfc."] RHETORIC. 395 

k The student should be made to feel that his dignity requires him early to depend 
on his own resources, and to present his own models, in his compositions. 

l It is advisable to require students to keep journals of all the little incidents of their 
lives, as the incidents occur; the news of the day ; the student's proficiency, &c. — 
[This will be a great aid in composition.] The journals should be read as compositions. 

m ^i/'The common practice of exercising students for months and years in books of 
" Exercises in Composition," can not be too severely censured. The tendency of this 
practice is to circumscribe, not to extend, the pupil's range of thought and observation 
—to reduce his mind to a machine— to make the student an ape instead of a man. A 
composition of ten lines, original, is better to him than a hundred lines drawn by him 
from books or essays on composition. 



SIS HINTS TO THE ADVANCED STUDENT. 

a Studiously avoid, in composition, style, or manner, any thing that can be suspect- 
ed as an attempt at pomp, or ostentation. 

b Be sparing of your figures of ornament : be careful in those of illustration. 

c As a speaker seek, first, to enliven rather than to arouse your audience : to engage, 
inform, and convince ; and by conviction, chiefly, to affect those whom you address. 

d Study dignity, without affectation ; ease, and simplicity, without vulgarity. 

e Expect not that your audience can easily be transported, or kept long in transport, 
after being raised ; and be very careful not to let those whom you address, see you ex- 
cited, before they shall have the glow of feeling, themselves. 

/ Chill not by 3'our coldness, or deaden by your languor; disgust not by an overheat- 
ed imagination, or an unwarrantable enthusiasm in which you must not expect that 
your audience will participate. Be earnest, yet not ardent. 

g As facts and proof, in litigation, are most important ; so, in a discourse, facts ad- 
mitted or proved, and the right conclusions, are all-imi)ortant to him who discourses on 
any subject. Use not argument without some ornament. Use not ornament, without 
much argument. Avoid common sayings. Suspect, and never introduce, maxims 
(whether ancient or modern,) whose point and bearing you are not able to explain, 
should it be demanded. Remember that in maxims, as in form and feature, age can not 
give beauty to deformity ; or youth, strength to constituted Aveakness or infirmity. 

h Treat not your audience as though its members were incapable of judging ; or as 
though they must understand as well as yourself, the subject upon which you have 
bestowed much, they, perhaps, but little, attention. [If this is not fact, why should 
you speak at all 1] Without some confidence in yourself, you may inspire pity ! but 
can not, respect. With arrogance, haughtiness, or ostentation, as your characteristic, 
expect disgust and aversion. Without full confidence in the importance of your sub- 
ject, and the tenability of your position, expect distrust or incredulity in your audience. 

i Do not divide your discourse into different heads or parts, numbering them in order ; 
except when the subject shall be such that it must appear first in separate, distinct 
parts, to render plain their union in forming a combination as a whole. In a young 
man, this dividing and arranging is always suspected as parade or ostentation : in an 
old man, it is suspected as a design for giving an unmitural dignity, to either the speak- 
er, or to the subject. 

j Do not insult your audience, either by offering what youh ave not previously inves- 
tigated and prepared to exhibit clearly, and defend, as your own ; or by an opening a- 
pology of your inability to do justice to the suliject. If you honestly think yourself 
inadequate to the accomplishment of what is proposed, make no engagement to speak. 
If you find yom-self engaged, and afterwards suspect your ability ; and can not, hon- 
orably, withdraw, make little apology; for, whatever inability you shall show, your 
audience will see, without your giving them a previous apprisal, by which, critical acu- 
men will be excited against you, without any abatement of severity, for your having 
acknowledged your inability. 

k {)5"In attitude or posture be erect, yet not stiff; in gesture, natural and easy ; in 
delivery, distinct, and neither hurried nor slow ; in feeling, strong and full, but not bois- 
terous ; in look, be earnest ; in manner, mild and pathetic ; or otherwise, according to 
the subject. 

I ^jfCrNever censure an audience for dulness or inattention : never expect your hear^ 
ers to understand or believe what you find yourself unable to explain. 



396 RHETORIC. [Correction] 



819 EXERCISES IN CORRECTION 

According to * The Seven General Principles^ of English Gram- 
mar, and the particular Rules and Directions relating to the 
science ; as given in this book. 

[For the correction of the sentences given in Section I, see Section II, 
following.] 

[Od^The figures, (as 234, 239, &c.) refer to the particular paragraphs, as 
rules or directions in the different parts of the book.] 

SECTION I. 
First Principle — Use of Right Words — See 14 and 15, 

p 16. 

A Instead of cultivating the colored population of the island, Bonaparte forever alien- 
ated the affections of this numerous body. — Alison. 

B The application of a name is of little consequence. — Goold Brown. 

c " I guess the general will get over his woimds," said the surgeon. 

D '' Words in respect of their Formation are either Primitive or Derivative," &c. 

E " Words in respect of Form, are either Declinable or Indeclinable." 

F " The deliverance of the package to the Colonel was postponed till morning." 

G Gustavus settled a pension upon the mother, with a reversion to the daughter at 
her death. 

H The dog, though fierce, went round, and round, his antagonist till his strength was 
exhausted. He then sprung upon him. 

I The hunters got back in time to take the steamboat for New- York. 

J " And the lions broke all their [the rulers'] bones or ever they came at the bottom 
of the pit." 

K Great Britain abstained from any farther opposition. — Alison. 

L Various causes had concurred to introduce dissolution among the manners of the 
clergy. — Robertson. 

M All claims of honor, except those of virtue, are changeable and ambuIator^'.-JJ/azV. 

N " She quickly re-illuminated her lamps." 

o The report spread, that before the expire of a year, the soldiers would be required 
to wear turbans. — History. 

p " He was scandalized at childhood for being playful ; and at youth for being lively."' 
Q " I am the Lord which made Heaven and Earth." 
R A flag of truce whom the general sent was not respected.— /f/5<ory. 
s The boasted glories of Louis XIV sink into insignificance when compared to the 
triumphs of Napoleon. — Alison. 
T I was my friends bail when he was taken \v^.— Addison. 

V Our adventurer was not a man to put up with so brutal an ?if[xo\\i.—Smollet. 

V I had expected the honorable mover would speak to that re?,o\\xtior^.—Arch-hishop 
Tillotson. 

w "The rocks rose on either hand to the height of sixty feet." 

X " Around the south-west, and the west side, nms a row of thirty large columns." 

V " He might have re-edified the fallen structures of Thebes." 
z " A cheaper kind of tobacco is gi-own in the country." 



[Correction] rhetoric. 397 

Second Principle — Use of Perfect Words — See 16 and 17, p 17. 

A " Isn't it,[the black anirnalj moving 1" said Caleb, " and isn't it black V " It is a 
bear 1 isn't it, grandmother V " No," said she, " I don't think it is a bear." — Abbot. 

B It will be a sort of harbor for 'em.—Mbot. 

c " I couldn't do the work : I therefore went to the house after some of my brothers." 

D " Who'll do-the waiting 7" said William. " I," said James, "if you'll pay me for't 
when it's done." 

E My friend was given to story tellin. 

F Who'd do that work for so small a sum 1 I wouldn't. 

G Helen wan't to home last evening when I called. 

H 'Taint best to be in a hurry about the work ; for it can be done in September bet- 
ter than now. 

I Hasn't James got back yet 1 I thought he wasn't to stay longer than two weeks, 

J Henry didn't see Robert last night, as he expected to. 

K William was sittin in the cauner writing his task for the next day. 

L Harriet learnt her lesson very easily : but Helen and Samuel couldn't repeat theirn. 

M The gloves were knitten in two days by little Henrietta. 

N Any person of common experience and observation might know that this work 
can't be got along wiih in three weeks. 

Third Principle — Right Forms of Words — See 18 and 19, p 17. 

A James is to accompany Mary and I to Philadelphia. 525 and 146. Jane and me 
are to attend school next summer. 525 and 146. 

B " Burns's introduction to the society of Edinburgh proved to be a great Injury to 
himself." 502. 

c Mr. Perkins's father died at the age of one hundred and ten years. 498. 

D fJeorge : was you expecting to accompany William to Pittsbmg"? 148. 

E " He must have been an unique sovereign." 658. 

F " He was captain of an hundred men." 658. 

G Neither James nor George are expected home this winter. 694. 

H A more milder person than Hannah, I have never known. 618, 

I Seven times eleven are seventy-seven — seven times twelve are eighty-four. 631. 

J William ; hand me the ten-feet measme and the foiu-rods chain. 628. 

K Maria wrote the letter very plainly. 670. 

L The men went each to their own houses. 676. 

M Harriet ; come in the store ; for it will rain very soon. 681. 

N I will go home wiih Henry if George should return to take my place. 574. 

Fourth Principle— Proper Number of Words—See 20 and21, p 17. 

A " As we stood near to the temple, we saws crowds of pilgrims approaching." 
B " The scouts were directed to ascend up the mountain in search of a passage." 
c " This countryman was a member of the artizan's library." 
D "The pile of masonry opposite to the Saracen tower was tending to decay." 
E " Here on the right hand rises a lofty mountain, and on the left hand roll the waves 
of the great gulf." 
F " They went out in the morning ; but did not return back again till dark." 
G " The wall fell down with ati-emendous crash which startled the villagers." 
H I staid home from school last summer. 

Fifth Principle — Proper Arrangement of Words — See 22 and 

23, p 18. 
A " Does not instinct teach men to joyfully extend relief to the distressed?" 
34 



398 RHETORIC. ICorrectionl 

B " Then, too, I was expecting to be engaged in a contest in which one of us must die,, 
with a desperado." 

c " We have sold our interest in the establisliment to E. B. Gray, of Boston, Esq.' ' 

» " The old harbor only admits the smallest class of vessels." 

E " For feeding silk worms, the first third of the season is worth more than the two 
last." 

F " They were nearly brought down to a level with their former dependants." 

Sixth Principle — Proper Pauses or Rests — See 24 and 25, p 18. 

A William George Mary, and Helen mil attend school this winter. 722. 
B " Thomas Jefferson author, of ' The Declaration of Independence" died, on the 4th 
day of July— just fifty years after independence was declared. 724. 

c " My friend, Henry the class-mate, of George Jackson is to be one of our party." 
D " The house new, and airy was occupied too soon, for the health of the family." 
E " Time the allayer, of dissensions brought no relief, to his troubled spirit." 

Seventh Principle — Due Emphasis — See 26 and 27, p 19. 

A Will you ride to the city to-day 1 fold example corrected.] ' No : but John will.' 

B Will 7/ou ride to the city to-day ? ' I think I shall not.' 

c Will you ride to the city to-day "? ' I shall go very near the city., 

D Will you ride to the city to-day 1 ' No : I think I shall walk.' 

E Will you ride to the city to-day t ' No : but I intend to go to-morrow.' 

F Will you ride to the city to-dmj ? ' I think I shall go to the East Village.' 
[These answers are misplaced. Let the pupil place them so that they will corres- 
pond with the questions.] 



SECTION II— First Principle. 

[The words are marked with letters to correspond with the sentences which the words 
are given to correct. The pupil must determine where these words are to be applied.] 
A Conciliating, b Importance, c Recover from, d With respect to, or With regard 
to. E With regard to, or With respect to. f Delivery, g The mother's, h The lat- 
ter's strength, or The strength of the latter, i Returned, j Before — to. k Refrained. 
L Dissoluteness, m Transitory, n Re-lighted, o Expiration, p Displeased, q Who. 
R Which, s With, t Became — friend's — arrested, u Brook — [bear with patience, 
or without resenting.] v On. w Each, x Extends, y Re-built — [this is better, as 
an English word. Edify is used chiefly in the sense of instruct.] z Raised. 

Second Principle. 

A Is — not. Is — not. Is— not. Do not. b Them, c Could not — for. r> Who will 
— you will — for it — it is. e Addicted — telling, f Who would — would not. g Was 
not at. H It is not. i Has not — returned. J Did not. k Sitting — corner, l Learn- 
ed — could not — theirs, m Knit, n Can not — done, or finished. 

Third Principle. 

A Me— I. B Burns', c Mr. Perkins', d Were, e A. f A. g Is. h [Omit viorc.\ 
I Is — is. J Ten toot— four rod. k Plain, l his— house, m Into, n Would. 

Fourth Principle. 

[In this part of the exercises, the words given, if found in Section I, are to be omitted ; 
if not found there, they are to be put in.] 

A To — saw. B Up. c Association, n To. e Hand, f Back again, g Down, h At. 
Fifth Principle. 

A Place the first to next after joyfully, b With a desperado next after en staged, c Esq. 
next after E. B. Gray, s Only next after admits, e Last next hefoie two. f JVear- 
ly next after dotcn. 

Sixth Principle. 



William, George, Mary and Helen ^\'ill attend, &c. b Thonms Jefferson, author 



REMARKS, 399 

of ' The Declaration'of Independence,' died on the fourth daj^ of July, &c. c My friend 
Henry, the class-mate of George .laclcson, is to be, &c. d 'J'he house, new and airy, 
was occupied, &c. e Time, the al layer of dissensions, brought, &c. 
Seventh Principle. 
A I think not. b No : but John will, c No : I think T shall walk, d No : but I 
shall go very near it. e I think I shall go to the East Village, f No: but I intend 
to go to-morrow. 

REMARKS. 

The pupil should be required to commit to memory, only the definitions and Ana^ 
Jytical Rules : but the teacher should carefully explain and illustrate, to the pupil, eve- 
ry thing which the latter is to commit to memory. [8ij=The Notes and Synthetical 
•Rules are to be read and understood, but not conunitted to memory.] 

The teacher should remember that the pupil's only object, in attending school, is to 
learn that of which he is ignorant — consequently it is the teacher's duty to adapt his 
instruction to the pupil's capacity. For this purpose he will find the simpler and more 
philosophical terms of distinction used in this work, better than the old nomenclature. 
The use of the new terms \y\\\ cause the teacher little or no trouble, as they are so di- 
rectly expressive of the principles to be described by them. 

Besides, the teacher must bear in mind, that he is not to remain stationary, and in- 
vite the pupil to approach him ; but it is the teacher's duty to go to the pupil in his state 
of ignorance, and bring him forward' — to help him along in the paths of science. Con- 
sequently the teacher should learn every improved method of imp ar ting knowledge. 

The teacher will derive great advantage to himself and his school, from the use of the 
New Nomenclature ; but, should he be engaged wholly with advanced students, he 
could, for a time, if he should see fit, use the old names (to some extent) in application 
to the principles exhibited in the' foregoing work. 

9i/=In parsing a name in the two-fold case, as, "James took whatever provisions 
were needed," (see pp G4-5) he might parse the name j>rovisions as a common noun of 
the neuter gender, third person, plural number, in the two-fold case ; objective, from 
relation to fooA~(I{ule for the active verb or transitive asserter, and the objective case,) 
and in the nominative or subjective case from relation to were needed — (Rule for the 
nominative or subjective case and the verb or asserter agreeing with it, or depending 
on it.) The substitute asserter might be parsed as a pronominal verb, with mode, tense, 
&c. &c. The auxiliar adnames might be called auxiliar or auxiliary, or helping adjec- 
tives ; or adverbs, qualifying adjectives ; the auxiliar modifiers might be called auxil- 
iar or auxiliary, or helping adverbs; the auxiliar relatives might be called auxiliar or 
auxiliary, or helping prepositions ; or adverbs, qualifying prepositions, &c. &c ; but all 
this would be just as much a deviation from philosophy, as from the strict letter of this 
theory ; and should not be countenanced except for the purpose of leading the advanced 
pupilupon the philosophical gi-ound described in the foregoing work. 

3:5=As soon as the pupil has read, and been made to understand. The Seven General 
Principles, given on pp 16, 17, 18, 19, he should be required to keep a little blank book, 
(which he can carry in his pocket,) and in it he should enter, under the respective prin- 
ciples, as heads, all the expressions which he hears or reads and deems erroneous. — 
These he should present for the inspection of the teacher, weekly, as they are collected. 

This plan, pursued systematically, a few months, will keep the pupil on the look-out 
for errors, which he will regard as such, and will not imitate them in his own style ; 
and will do more for his imi)rovement than all the " Exercises in False Syntax" that 
could be printed in any book. 



9c|=There may be, in this work, errors which have escaped detection : if 
so, it is hoped they are of such a character as not to mislead the pupil, in 
style or sentiment. 

On page 352, number 604, the words *' believed^ or" should be read be- 
fore 'am.' In note cp 60, the name ^^ James,'' by inadvertence, is used 
where '/oAn' should have been. In example under 388, p 246, " Joseph" 
is used for 'John.' In note e p 252, " George" is used for 'Seih.' 

(trf=-Should there be any other mistakes, the author and publishers crave 
the indulgence of the reader, who will consider the difficulties attending the 
printing of an original work of this character. 



400 ADDRESS, &C. 

ADDRESS TO THE STUDENT. 

It is hoped that you are pursuing the study of your own 
language for the sake ofthe benefit which may accrue to your- 
self and to mankind, from your acquaintance with its princi- 
ples. Study, then, the science, with the utmost care, till you 
shall have a full, clear, and comprehensive view of it; of its 
nature and bearings, and its application to the practical con- 
cerns of life. Think before you speak; and arrange, mental- 
ly, in grammatical order, the words that are to express your 
ideas, before you shall utter them. 

Follow, in your diction, not one rule of Grammar, to the 
neglect of any other; but, by study and practice, united, 
make yourself familiar with the whole. Remember, that as 
no treatise on writing, or the formation of letters, can alone 
make you a good penman ; so no theory of grammar, however 
near perfection, can, without practice, make you a good speak- 
er or writer. Remember, too, that, as in moral principle and 
action, so in the use of language, no error is too small to be 
known and shunned; no virtue or excellence, too inconsidera- 
ble or unimportant to be understood and practised. 

Vast as is the globe on which we live, it is formed by the 
combination of the smallest particles of matter. The talents 
and virtues of men, which sometimes shine forth with dazzling 
splendor, are not distinct and separate principles, acting inde- 
pendently and alone ; but are formed and sustained by the 
union and exercise of the humbler graces and virtues, which, 
entering the composition of men's characters, constitute them 
what they appear. No person who has only one ennobling 
trait, and that one at variance with the rest of his character, 
should expect to shine as a scholar, as a man, or as a philan- 
thropist. 

Look upon yourself, and your relations to the world. Make 
a proper estimate of human life, and your own abilities. — 
Raise, now, your standard of principle and action, while yet 
you are uncontaminated with the frailties ofthe age. Prepare 
to meet, with decision and firmness, and to oppose, with ener- 
gy, the vices, of every name and grade, which exert their bale- 
ful influence on society and the world. 

Expect not that you can exhibit, for correction or rebuke, 
the errors or vices of mankind, without exciting the enmity of 
those whose favorite theories, or dark misdeeds, you expose. 
Disturbed in their pursuits, they will seek, by slanderous im- 



ADDRESS, &C. 401 

putations on your motives or your character, to sliielcl tliem- 
selves from the contempt of the wise, or the scom of the up- 
right. 

Be pure in hfe, and circumspect in action — in pubUc or pri- 
vate station; be fearless in discharging your duty. Then, if op- 
posed, maUgned, and oppressed, remember that the Great 
Reformer was slandered and persecuted — was betrayed by an 
associate, and abandoned by his friends. Console yourself 
with the reflection, that no storm ever lasted always — that night 
is ever followed by day — that persecution may embarass, but 
can not hopelessly cast down, him who is true to himself — that 
suffering mingles sympathy with admiration for him who suf- 
fers, not as an evil-doer, but for duty's sake : just as the pas- 
sing cloud obscures, for a time, but can not extinguish, the 
brightness of the luminary which it seems to hide ; and by this 
transient obscuration, only endears the light to the gladdened 
eye of the beholder. 

Trust not the illusions of hope ; or do evil, that good may 
<iome. Though you may see opportunities for obtaining, ear- 
lier, the object of your toil, by exercising the low, servile spir- 
it of cunning and intrigue ; (and thereby preclude the possi- 
bility of enjoying the possession, by the means used for its 
attainment ;) and though others, less scrupulous than yourself, 
may, for a time, seem to outstrip you ; yet, with a loftiness of 
aim, with a magnanimity of sentiment, and correspondent ac- 
tion, which man, however vile, must venerate, and which God, 
himself, approves ; spurn, with contempt, the idea of deriving 
enjoyment from what is unworthily attained. 

Determine within yourself, and unswervingly adhere to that 
determination, that the temple which is the object of your am- 
bition, shall never be entered by you, except through the path 
of uniform integrity and usefulness : that you will hold in ut- 
ter disdain all pleasures, however fashionable, which are not 
consistent with man's exalted dignity, and the pure principles 
of Christian morality. 

While you guard yourself from the intrigues of the vile, 
by exercising a proper care for your own interest, in connec- 
tion with the welfare of others, let unbounded philanthropy 
dilate your heart. Let your motto be — First, my God and 
country : next, my neighbor and myself— Be temperate, be 
affable, and studious to improve your time ; be intelligent and 
mrtuous : be active, useful, and HAPPY. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



In this Index the figures in parentheses, as (84) (223) &c. refer to the paragraphs as 
numbered throughout the book. Those figures not in parentheses, as 79, 80, &c. refer 
to the page of the book. In the Particular Index, next page, this plan is reversed. 



Address to the Teacher 13 

Student 400 

Language 15 

Grammar 16 English Grammar 16 

Seven General Principles 16 

ORTHOGRAPHY 20 

ETYMOLOGY 24 

Parts of Speech classed and defined 24 
Lecture on all the parts of speech 27 to 46 
Parsing defined 46 Do. 223 

NAMES— Nouns 49, kinds of names 49 
f^ex, distinctions, 51 person, distinctions, 
o4 number, distinctions, 55 regular 
names 56 irregular 58 324 defective 58 
324 case 59 subjective 59 possessive 60 
possessive forms 332 objective 61 inde- 
pendent 62 two-fold 63 declension of 
names 65 Q^ Cases, direct and indirect 
~3'2.J^ questions 66 parsing names 63 
names used as adnames 372— as modifi- 
ers 184 as rela I 182 as conn i 203. 
substitutes-Pronouns 75, kinds 75 
simple suh.5 75 declension 76 sex, dis- 
tinctions, 51 person 54 number 55 case 
59 forms to be used iiL certain cases [see 
declension] 76 connective subs 81-83 
declension 83 interrogative subs declen- 
sion 86 adname subs 86 negative subs 
88 indefinite subs 89 contrast of all 
kinds of substitutes 90 traits of similar- 
ity and dissimilarity 91 subs phrase 93 
questions 92 parsing substitutes 93. 
ASSERTERS— Verbs 99, kinds, princi- 
pal, auiiliar, and substitute asssrters 99- 
100 kinds, intransitice, transitive, re- 
ceptive, 99 101 mode 102 ' tree of modes' 
103-4 contrast of all the modes 105 teach- 
ing the pupil how to distinguish the 
modes 110 different uses of the same 
jriodes 111 (and 600, p 351) 95=" Sub- 
junctive mode," 114 134 diagram of 
iiiodes and tenses 126 tense 114 diagram 
(the steps) of the tenses 116 contrast of 
all the tenses 117 difierent uses of the 
same tenses 123 (and 591-7-9, pp 349-50- 
1) regular, irregular, and defective asser- 
ters 124 singular and plural, common 
form 125 other disiinciions of form, (con- 
tinuative and completive) 125 inflection 
or conjugation of am or be 12D — of love, 
transitive, 133 — receptive, 138 — write, 
143 being built 147 written to 148 table 
of irregular asserters 1,52 of defective 
157 questions 1.33 parsing asserters 160 
^jf^assevters, adnames, modifiers, and 
relatives compared 171 186 192. 
ADNAMES— Adjectives 165, kinds 165 
qualifying 165 forms— simple, compar- 
ative, diminutive 165 regular 166 irreg- 
ular 166 defective 167 principal and 
auxiliar 169 diagrams 170 names used 
as adnames 172 specifying adnames 172 
ifjterrogative adnames 174 exclamatory 
adnames 174 negative adnames 175 as- 



sertive adnames 175 modifying adnames 
176 questions 176 parsing 177 adnames, 
asserters, modifiers, and relatives com- 
pared 171 186 192. 
MODIFIERS— Adverbs 181, kinds 182 
forms, simple, comparative, superlative, 
diminutive, 183 declension 184 names 
used as modifiers 184 principal, auxiliar, 

185 contrast of modifiers and substitutes 

186 difierent uses of modifiers 187 ques- 
tions 183 parsing 188 modifiers,adnames, 
asserters, and relatives compared 186 192 

RELATIVES— Prepositions 190 kinds 
190 principal, auxiliar 190-1 tables of 
relatives 191 196 see a, under (686) dia- 
grams 192 adname relatives 194 modi- 
fying relatives 194 independent relatives 
195 questions 197 parsing 197 relatives, 
modifiers, adnames, and asserters com- 
pared 192 

CONNECTIVES — Con.icnctions 2 0, 
kinds 200 simple con 200 adname con 
201 modifying con 202 tables of con 
203-4 diagrams 202-3 questions 205 par- 
sing 208. 

INTERROGATIVES— A-DVERBS 209 ta- 
ble of interrog 209 questions 209 par- 
sing 209. 

REPLIERS— Adverbs 210, kinds, afiir- 
mative, negative, doubtful, 210, ques- 
tions 210 parsing 211 contrast of inter- 
rogatives and repliers 41. 

EXCLAMATIONS— Interjections 2] 1 
questions 213 parsing 213. 

Derivation of words 213 9:5"-'^ccommoda- 
tives 215..4;:(J 

SYNTAX 219 sentences 219 phrases 221 
parsing 223 remarks on parsing 224 or- 
der of parsing 226 diagrams of the order 
of parsing names 226 of substitutes 227 
asserters 228 adnames 2iQ modifiers 230 
relatives 231 connectives 231 interroga- 
tives 231 repliers 2:U exclamations 231. 

RULES Analytical 233 parsing lessons il- 
lustrating the Rules 259. 

PHRASES' parsed as phrases or combina- 
tions 285 parsing in the maimer of the 
old theories 239. 

TRANSPOSITION and DIAGRAMS il- 
lustrating the analytical rules 290 mis- 
cellaneous e.xercises, transposition and 
diagrams 305 remarks on correction, 
transposition, parsinL% &c. 312. 

SYNTHETICAL PRINCIPLES and 
RULES [rules for composition] 315 let- 
ters (writing) 329-331-2-3 prefixes 373 
sutfixes .374. 

PROSODY 376 utterance 376 punctuation 
377 capital letters, use of, 382 impor- 
tant directions 362 versification 383. 

RHETORIC 334 'Good Taste' (772) 384 
remarks on composition 394 hints to the 
advanced student 395 exercises iu cox- 
rection 396 closing aikb-ess 400. 



PARTICULAR INDEX, 

(Alphabetically Arranged.) 

In this Index the figures in parentheses, as (84) &c. refer to the page ; and figures not 
included in parentheses, re fer to the paragraphs. 



Address to the teacher(13)to the stu- 
dent (400) alphabet 34 adna 67 
and 254 rules for using 617 adna 
subs 164 adna rel 332 adna conn 
340 asserters 63 and 173 assertive 
name 81 c (242) 385 (271 285)as- 
sertive adna 304 auxil assert 176 
auxil adna 280 auxil modi 318 
auxil rel 325 auxil sentences 362 
alphabetical characters pluralized 
112 accommodatives357 append- 
ent phrases 367 affirmareplier350. 

Bdng built *a (142) been, denot, ac- 
tion * (152) but, a relative e (196.) 

Consonants 37 connectives 70 and 
337 rules for using 687 conn subs 
156 com names 86 coUec nam 80 
commanding mode 186 (absolute) 

188 contrast of names, subs and 
assert (29 and 31) of adna and as- 
sert (35 and 36) of adna and modi 
(37) of rel and conn (39) of in- 
terrog and repliers (41) of subs 
(different kinds) 171 of subs and 
modi a (186) of modes a (105) of 
tenses a (117) comparative form of 
the adna 259 of modi 310 case 128 
cases dii'ect and indirect 371 capi- 
tal letters 760 Composition 817. 

Defective nam 120 470 defect assert 
204 and 250-1-2-3 defec adna 266 
declarative mode 183 dependent 
mode 187 and 224-5-6 (132) (ab- 
solute) 188 different uses of modes 

189 of tenses 200 definite specif 
adna 294 and 639 distrib specif 
adna 292 and 636 diminutive form 
of adna 261 ot modi 312 declen- 
sion of names 134 of simple subs 
144 of emphatic subs 152 of conn 
subs 159 of interrog subs 163 of 
adna subs 168 of adna 262 272 of 
modi 313 doubtful repliers 352 
derivation of vs'ords 356 (lcf=DiA- 
GRAMS of adnames and asserters 
(36) of conn (39) of conn and rela 
40 of interrog and repliers (41 and 
45) of exclamations (41 and 45) 
of assertive names * (51) of first 
person not applied to names *a{54) 
of two-fold case (64-5 83-4 86 
290 307 309) diagram of simple 



and conn subs (81) of conn subs 
(83-4) of adna 265 and 282 of ad- 
na and assert compared 285 of 
modifiers 320 of adna assert and 
modi compared 321 of rela 329 of 
rela adna modi and assert compa- 
red 330 of like c (194) c (195) of 
but € (196) ot except f (196) Sec- 
tions of diagrams from(285 to 312) 
Od^DiAGRAMS to be used by the 
pupil in parsing names (226) ia 
parsing subs (227) in parsing assert 
(228) in parsing adna (229) in par- 
sing modi (230) in parsing rela 
(231) in parsing conn (231) in par- 
sing interrog (231) in pars repliers 
(231) in parsing exclama (331.) 

Etymology 59 emphatic simple subs 
152 rules for using (337) exclama- 
tions 73 and 353 rule for using 702 
exclamatory adna 302 each 292-3 
/ (216) 636 676 either 292 343-4 
g (216) 637-8 elocution 712. 

Forms of names and subs sing 97 
plur 98 names, possessive form 
136-7 497 subs poss form (76 to 
80) 159 163 168 form of assert 
singu 205 plur 206 common 207 
completive 209 continuative 210 
emphatic e (216) 577 of adna 
simple 258 compar 259 superl 260 
diminu 261 of modifiers simp 309 
compara 310 superl 311 dimin 312 
fut tenses 197-8 fern, names, subs 
84 For all, a relative, 336 697. 

Grammar 8 general gram 9 particu- 
lar gram 11 Eng gram 12 and (5) 
divided into five parts 28 go {John 
go home] (63 224-5.) 

How to distinguish the subjective 
case d (59) to / (61) (Kl=to distin- 
guish which subs is conn A (84) to 
k (85) to distinguish the case of 
conn subs I (85; Ocf=to distinguish 
the modes w (110) to mm (111) 
(}C|=>tenses t« (121) to dd (122) 
hints to the advanced student 818 

Interrogatives 71 346 rule for using 
700 interrogative subs 160 in- 
terrogative mode 185 interroga 
adna 301 independent case mdi- 
rect*a(241.) 



(^irM. 



404 



APPENDIX. 



k:nLL 



*a(241) indefinite subs 170 indef 
tense 199 indef past tense 194 and 
(116) indefinite future tense 198 
and (116) irreg names 116 469 ir- 
reg assert 203 irreg adna 264 in- 
inferential mode 184 indef speci- 
fying adna 296 independent rela 
334 Od^i/', its influence and use b 
(123) 591 599. 

John; go home (63 224-5.) 

Language 1 letters 30 letters (epis- 
tles) sample (330) to married la- 
dies 460 to ladies and gentlemen 
488 to 495 limitation in the defi- 
nitions of modes 182 of tenses 191 
like *a (194 c 195) 336 (197) Lo, 
used as an asserter * (213) 

Maxim (12) mascu names and subs 
83 mode 181 modi 68 and 306 
rules for using 671 modi adna 305 
modifying rel 333 modif conn 341 
myself its methinks, methought, 
me-seems, &c. 532. 

Names 61 and 76 na used as adna 
286 as modi 316 as rel (auxil)(192) 
[see 'Jirst auxil.^ diagram I] as 
conn i (208) in exclam phrases 355 
0£f='Posse3s. forms of names 135-6 
and 497 negative subs 169 neg ad- 
na 303 neg modi o (183) number 
96 neuter names and subs SQ nu- 
meral speci adna 290. 

Orthography 29 object case 131 di- 
rect and mdirect III (233) ourself 
153 ovm 1(79) 'God' sown grace' 
528 ordinal specif adna 291 on, u- 
sed as an asserter n (217) ours^ 
yours, theirs, &c. t (79.) 

Principles, seven general 13 partic 
names 79 partic names plural 111 
person 92 first person never appli- 
ed to names a (54) to e (55) prin- 
cipal assert 175 princ adna 279 and 
t (169) prin modi 317 prin rela 
324 prior-past tense 193 and (116) 
prior-pres tense 195 and (116)pri- 
or-fut tense 197 and (116) present 
tense 196 and (116) primary form 
of assert 201 plural names & subs 
98 plural assert 206 penny, plu- 
ralized 105 and f (56) possess case 
130 direct and mdirect 11 (233) 
possess forms of names 135-6 and 
497 of subs 146 to 163 prefixes 703 



and 705 Parsing defined 74 and , , 
368 parsing names (68) subs (93) 
asserters (160) adna (177) modi 
(188) rel (197) conn (206) inter- 
rog (209) repliera (211) exclama 
(2 13) remarks on parsing 369 and 
(312) ord of parsing 370 remarks 
on transposition and pars 417 par- 
sing to illustra the rules (259) pars 
phrases. Lesson XIX (285) mis- 
cella. exerci in pars (306) Proso- 
dy (376) punctuat 719 and 761. 

Qualifying adnames 256. 

Rules analytical [Oi^^for parsing]372 
(233) rules synthetical [Od^to be 
read and applied in composition, 
but not to be committed to mem- 
ory] 434 regular names 100 reg 
assert 202 reg adna 263 relatives 
69 and 322 rules for using relativ 
680 repliers 72 and 348 rule for u- 
sing replie 701 Rhetoric 766 re- 
marks on composition 817. 

Syllables 31 spelling 54 sex 82 sin- 
gular form of names and subs 97 of 
assert 205 subjective case 129 di- 
rect and mdirect, I of 371 subs 62 
and 139 rules for using 522 subs 
phrase 172 subs assert 177 specif 
adna 288 simp form of adna 258 
of modi 309 simp subs 141 simple 
conn 339 suffixes 704. 

Transitiv assert 65 and 179 «Tree of 
Modes' (104) tenses 190 two-fold 
case 133 and *a (64) to / (65-6) 
Lesson VIII (71) *a (82) to g (84) 
138 three-fold relation or case / 
(64 84 and 98) theirs, ours, yours 
&i.Q,. in the plural form and the plu- 
ral and the singular sense | (79) 
their, in singul sense b c (80) and 
448 there, as a modifier of sound 
(163) *a (181) though, what tho' 
and although, and i/SiS and 697- 
8-9 the, as a def speci adna 294 as 
an auxil adna 396 and e (251) as 
an auxil modi 399 and e (253.) 

Uses, different, of modes(lll)of ten- 
ses (^123; of dif parts of speech 357 
unlike, a rela 336 utterance 707. 

Vowels 36 versification 762 

What, whatever, whosever, &c. 
notes, (83-4.) 

You 148 yours theirs, &c. | (79.) 



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